<p>LAlpe d&#39;Huez is a ski resort at 1250 to 3330 m. It is a mountain pasture in the Central French Western Alps, in the commune of Huez, which is part of the department of Isère in the region of Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes.</p><br>
<p>It is part of the massif, over the Oisans, and is 59 km from Grenoble. The Alpe dHuez resort is accessible from Grenoble by the, which runs along the Romanche Valley passing through the communes of Livet-et-Gavet and Le Bourg-dOisans as well as Haut-Oisans via the Col de Sarenne.</p><br>
<p>Alpe dHuez is used regularly in the Tour de France cycle race, including twice on the same day in 2013. Alberto Contador holds the record for the fastest ascent of the climb with 37 30", achieved during the 2010 Critérium du Dauphiné.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The site of the Alpe has been permanently occupied since the Middle Ages. East of L&#39;Alpe veti, a medieval agglomeration had indeed grown from the end of the 11th to the 14th century under the name of Brandes. It was composed of a castle, a parish church with a cemetery, a village with about 80 homes, surface and underground mine workings as well as several industrial districts. Its occupants operated a silver mine on behalf of the Dauphin. It is currently the only medieval known and preserved in its entirety, making it a unique site in Europe and classified as historical monuments by a decree of 6 August 1995.</p><br>
<p>Excavated and studied continuously since 1977 by a team of the CNRS, this site is registered as historic monuments. The medieval mining operation stretched from Gua (the Valley) to the Lac Blanc (Massif des Rousses). The massif was also the subject of mining operations, including copper, from the Bronze Age.</p><br>
<p>It is also at Alpe d&#39;Huez where botanist Gaston Bonnier began his study of flora of France in 1871.</p><br>
<p>The station was developed from the 1920s. This is where the first platter lift for skiers was opened in 1936 with perches by, creator of the Poma company.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>Each year, the is held in January.</p><br>
<p>Alpe dHuez also has an altiport, the Alpe dHuez Airport, built for the 10th Winter Olympics held at Grenoble in 1968. It was named for on 15 April 2000, in memory of the famous mountain pilot. The altiport hosts helicopters including those of civil security, and the Dauphiné flying club. A gourmet restaurant is located on the edge of the platform.</p><br>
<h2>Local culture and heritage</h2><br>
<h3>Sites and monuments</h3><br>
<h4>The church</h4><br>
<p>Alpe d&#39;Huez has a modern and original church, the appearance of which recalls a silhouette of the Virgin Mary. Under the leadership of Father Jaap Reuten, head of the parish from 1964 to 1992, it was designed by the architect Jean Marol in the 1960s (completed in 1970), and decorated with colour-rich stained-glass windows by the artist Arcabas.</p><br>
<p>This church houses a pipe organ which is unique in the world. The organ takes the form of a hand drawn up towards the sky, designed by composer Jean Guillou and the German organ builder Detlef Kleuker. Each year, concerts are held around this instrument on Thursday night, winter and summer, as well as organ, pan flute and choral courses during the summer.</p><br>
<h3>Cultural heritage</h3><br>
<p>The (or Musée d&#39;Huez et de Oisans), of the.</p><br>
<h2>Winter sports</h2><br>
<p>Alpe d&#39;Huez is primarily used for downhill, or Alpine skiing.</p><br>
<h3>Skiing at Alpe d'Huez</h3><br>
<p>Alpe dHuez is one of Europes premier skiing venues. The site of the Pomagalskis first surface lift in the mid thirties, the resort gained popularity when it hosted the bobsleigh events of the 1968 Winter Olympics. At that time the resort was seen as a competitor to Courchevel as Frances most upmarket purpose built resort but the development of Les Trois Vallées, Val dIsère, Tignes, La Plagne and Les Arcs saw Alpe DHuez fall from favour in the 1970s and early 1980s.</p><br>
<p>With 249 km of piste and 84 ski lifts, the resort is now one of the worlds largest. Extensive snowmaking facilities helped combat the ski areas largely south-facing orientation and helped Alpe d&#39;Huez appeal to beginner skiers, with very easy slopes. The expansion of the skiing above the linked resorts of Vaujany, Oz-en-Oisans, Villard Reculas and Auris boosted the quantity and quality of intermediate grade slopes but the resort is mostly known for freeskiing, drawing many steep skiing enthusiasts to its high altitude terrain.</p><br>
<p>Aside from the Tunnel and Sarenne black runs, the latter the worlds longest at 16 km, many Off-piste opportunities exist both from the summit of the 3,330 m Pic Blanc and the 2,808 m Dome des Petites Rousses. These include the 50-degree Cheminees du Mascle couloirs, the open powder field of Le Grand Sablat, the Couloir Fleur and the Perrins bowl. Up to 2,200 m of vertical descent are available with heli drops back to the resorts altiport. The proximity to the exclusively off-piste resort of La Grave as well as tree skiing at Serre Chevalier and the glacier and terrain parks of Les Deux Alpes have made Alpe d&#39;Huez a popular base for skiers looking to explore the Oisans region.</p><br>
<h3>1968 Winter Olympics</h3><br>
<p>Alpe d&#39;Huez hosted the bobsleigh events at the 1968 Winter Olympics based at Grenoble 65 km away. The track, built in spring 1966 for FRF 5,500,000, hosted the 1967 FIBT world championship. The cooling could not keep the ice solid in bright daylight – not least because the track faced south. The four-man event was cancelled because of thawing ice, and modifications were made in spring 1967 to prepare for the Games. The refrigeration system was strengthened in turns 6, 9, 12, and 13; turn 12 was covered with stone and earthwork to prevent concrete coming up, turn 12 was cooled with liquid nitrogen, and shades were built on turns 6, 9, 12, and 13 to minimise direct sunlight. Thawing remained a problem and Olympic bobsleigh events had to be scheduled before sunrise. The track closed in 1972 due to high operating costs but the structure remains as demolition would not have been economical.</p><br>
<p>No turn names were given for the track.</p><br>
<h2>Cycle racing</h2><br>
<h3>Details of the climb</h3><br>
<p>The climb to the summit starts at Le Bourg d&#39;Oisans in the Romanche valley. The climb goes via the D211 from where the distance to the summit (at 1,860 m) is 13.8 km, with an average gradient of 8.1%, with 21 hairpin bends and a maximum gradient of 13%.</p><br>
<h3>Tour de France</h3><br>
<p>LAlpe dHuez is climbed regularly in the Tour de France. It was first included in the race in 1952 and has been a stage finish regularly since 1976.</p><br>
<p>The race was brought to the mountain by Élie Wermelinger, the chief commissaire or referee. Their leader was Georges Rajon, who ran the Hotel Christina. The ski station there opened in 1936. Wermelinger reported to the organiser, Jacques Goddet, and the Tour signed a contract with the businessmen to include the Alpe. It cost them the modern equivalent of €3,250.</p><br>
<p>That first Alpe d&#39;Huez stage was won by Fausto Coppi.</p><br>
<p>Coppi attacked 6 km from the summit to rid himself of the French rider Jean Robic. He turned the Alpe into an instant legend because this was the year that motorcycle television crews first came to the Tour. It was also the Tour&#39;s first mountain-top finish. The veteran reporter, Jacques Augendre, said:</p><br>
<p>Augendre neglected to mention Fignon, who, along with Coppi and Armstrong, took yellow on the Alpe without winning the stage in 1983, 1984, and 1989. He held it into Paris in 1983 and 1984 but in 1989 he lost it on the final stage to Paris, a time trial, to Greg LeMond to finish second by 8", the closest finish in tour history.</p><br>
<p>After Coppi, however, the Alpe was dropped until 1964, when it was included as a mid-stage climb, and then again until 1976, both times at Rajon&#39;s instigation.</p><br>
<p>The hairpin bends are named after the winners of stages. All hairpins had been named by the 22nd climb in 2001 so naming restarted at the bottom with Lance Armstrongs name added to Coppis.</p><br>
<p>Stage 18 of the 2013 Tour de France included a double ascent of the climb, reaching 1,765 m on the first passage, and continuing to the traditional finish on the second.</p><br>
<p>French journalist and LEquipe sportswriter Jean-Paul Vespini wrote a book about Alpe dHuez and its role in the Tour de France: The Tour Is Won on the Alpe: Alpe d&#39;Huez and the Classic Battles of the Tour de France.</p><br>
<h4>Spectators</h4><br>
<p>The Alpe has chaotic crowds of spectators. In 1999, Giuseppe Guerini won despite being knocked off by a spectator who stepped into his path to take a photograph. The 2004 individual time trial became chaotic when fans pushed riders toward the top. Attendance figures on the mountain have to be treated with caution. A million spectators were claimed for 1997. Eric Muller, the mayor of Alpe d&#39;Huez, however, said there were 350,000 in 2001, four years later despite acceptance that the number rises every year. "We expect more than 400,000 for the centenary race in 2003", he said. The author Tim Moore wrote:</p><br>
<p>As a variant on a sporting theme, Alpe dHuez annoys the purists but enthrals the broader public, like 20/20 cricket or beach volleyball. Last year, a full-blown tent-stamping riot had required heavy police intervention. During this years clean-up operation, down in a ravine with the bottle shards and dented emulsion tins, a body turned up. Hed fallen off the mountain and no one had noticed. When the Tour goes up Alpe dHuez, its a squalid, manic and sometimes lethal shambles, and thats just the way they like it. It&#39;s the Glastonbury Festival for cycling fans.</p><br>
<p>Alpe d&#39;Huez has been nicknamed the "Dutch Mountain", since Dutchmen won eight of the first 14 finishes in le Tour De France. British author Geoffrey Nicholson wrote:</p><br>
<p>The attraction of opposites draws from the Low Countries to the Alps each summer in any case. But all winter in the Netherlands coach companies offer two or three nights at Alpe dHuez as a special feature of their alpine tours. And those Dutch families who dont come by coach, park their campers and pitch their tents along the narrow ledges beside the road like sea-birds nesting at St Kilda. The Dutch havent adopted the Alpe dHuez simply because it is sunny and agreeable, or even because the modern, funnel-shaped church, Notre Dame des Neiges, has a Dutch priest, Father Reuten (until a few years ago, it was used as a press room and was probably the only church in France where, for one day at least, there were ashtrays in the nave and a bar in the vestry, or where an organist was once asked to leave because he was disturbing the writers concentration). No, what draws the Dutch to Alpe dHuez is the remarkable run of success their riders have had there".</p><br>
<h4>Significant stages</h4><br>
<p>1952: Jean Robic attacked at the start of the climb and only Fausto Coppi could stay with him. The two climbed together until Coppi attacked at bend five, 4 km from the top. He won the stage, the lead in the general classification, and kept it till the end of the race.</p><br>
<p>1977: Lucien Van Impe, a Belgian rider leading the climbers&#39; competition, broke clear on the Col du Glandon. He gained enough time to threaten the leader, Bernard Thévenet. He was still clear on the Alpe when a car drove into him. The time that Van Impe waited for another wheel was enough to keep Thévenet in the lead by eight seconds.</p><br>
<p>1978: Another Belgian leading the mountains race also came close to taking the yellow jersey as leader of the general classification. Michel Pollentier also finished alone, but he was caught soon afterwards defrauding a drugs control and was disqualified.</p><br>
<p>1984: The Tour invited amateurs to take part in the 1980s. The best was Luis Herrera, who lived at 2,000 m altitude in Colombia. None of the professionals could follow him. He won alone to the cacophony of broadcasters who had arrived to report his progress.</p><br>
<p>1986: Bernard Hinault said he would help Greg LeMond win the Tour but appeared to ride otherwise. The two crossed the line arm in arm in an apparent sign of truce.</p><br>
<p>1997: Marco Pantani, who won on the Alpe two years earlier, attacked three times and only Jan Ullrich could match him. He lasted until 10 km from the summit and Pantani rode on alone to win in what is often quoted as record speed (see below).</p><br>
<p>1999: Giuseppe Guerini, who broke away on his own, collided with a spectator but got up and went on to win the stage.</p><br>
<p>2001: Lance Armstrong feigned vulnerability earlier in the stage, appearing to be having an off-day. At the bottom of the Alpe dHuez climb, Armstrong moved to the front of the lead group of riders and then looked back at Jan Ullrich. Armstrong later commented that he wasnt looking back at Ullrich but was actually looking back to see the position of his teammate Tyler Hamilton. Seeing no response from Ullrich, Armstrong accelerated away from the field to claim the victory, 1:59 ahead of Ullrich. Armstrong would later be stripped of this achievement and his tour win by his conviction for doping in 2012. His name however, is still honoured on one of the 21 signs of previous winners, lining the road of Alpe D&#39;huez.</p><br>
<p>2013: Christophe Riblon won the stage at the summit of Alpe d&#39;Huez during the 100th edition of the Tour. For the first time ever, riders rode up the climb twice with the descent over the Col de Sarenne in between.</p><br>
<h4>Winners</h4><br>
<p>In 1979 there were two stages at Alpe d&#39;Huez.</p><br>
<p>† Stage 18 of the 2013 Tour climbed to Alpe d&#39;Huez twice. Moreno Moser was the leader at the first time over the summit.</p><br>
<h4>Fastest ascents</h4><br>
<p>The climb has been timed since 1994 so earlier times are subject to discussion. From 1994 to 1997 the climb was timed from 14.5 km from the finish. Since 1999 photo-finish has been used from 14 km. Other times have been taken 13.8 km from the summit, which is the start of the climb. Others have been taken from the junction 700 m from the start.</p><br>
<p>These variations have led to a debate. Pantanis 37m 35s has been cited by Procycling and World Cycling Productions, publisher of Tour de France DVDs, and by Cycle Sport. In a biography of Pantani, Matt Rendell notes Pantani at: 1994 – 38m 0s; 1995 – 38m 4s; 1997 – 37m 35s. The Alpe tourist association describes the climb as 14.454 km and lists Pantanis 37m 35s (23.08 km/h) as the record.</p><br>
<p>Other sources give Pantanis times from 1994, 1995 and 1997 as the fastest, based on timings adjusted for the 13.8 km. Such sources list Pantanis time in 1995 as the record at 36m 40s. In Blazing Saddles, Rendell has changed his view and listed it as 36m 50s as does CyclingNews. Second, third, and fourth fastest are Pantani in 1997 (36m 45s), Pantani in 1994 (37m 15s) and Jan Ullrich in 1997 (37m 30s). Armstrong&#39;s time in 2004 (37m 36s) makes him fifth fastest, highlighting how the 1990s had faster ascents than other eras.</p><br>
<p>A number of cycling publications cite times prior to 1994, although distances are typically not included, making comparisons difficult. Coppi has been listed with 45m 22s for 1952.</p><br>
<p>In the 1980s Gert-Jan Theunisse, Pedro Delgado, Luis Herrera, and Laurent Fignon rode in times stated to be faster than Coppi&#39;s, but still not breaking 40m. Greg LeMond and Bernard Hinault have been reported as having the times of 48m 0s in 1986.</p><br>
<p>It was not until Gianni Bugno and Miguel Indurain in 1991, that times faster than 40m were reported, including in the 39m range for Bjarne Riis in 1995 and Richard Virenque in 1997.</p><br>
<h4>Ascent times</h4><br>
<p>Based on 14.454 km</p><br>
<p>The 2004 stage was an individual time trial.</p><br>
<h3>Other cycle races</h3><br>
<p>The peak is also finish of La Marmotte, a one-day, 175 km ride with 5,000 m of climbing.</p><br>
<h3>Mountain biking</h3><br>
<p>The resort caters for mountain bikers during the summer months, the pinnacle of which is the Megavalanche, a Downhill Enduro Event that takes riders from lift station at the highest peak, Pic Blanc, to Allemont in the valley floor.</p><br>
<h3>Triathlon</h3><br>
<p>Since 2006 Cyrille Neveu has organized the Triathlon EDF Alpe d&#39;Huez, which has become a major summer attraction.</p><br>
<h2>International relations</h2><br>
<h3>Twin towns – Sister cities</h3><br>
<p>Alpe d&#39;Huez is twinned with:</p><br>
<p>Bormio, Italy, since 2005.</p><br>
<p>The Matterhorn  is a mountain of the Alps, straddling the main watershed and border between Switzerland and Italy. It is a large, near-symmetrical pyramidal peak in the extended Monte Rosa area of the Pennine Alps, whose summit is 4,478 m high, making it one of the highest summits in the Alps and Europe. The four steep faces, rising above the surrounding glaciers, face the four compass points and are split by the Hörnli, Furggen, Leone, and Zmutt ridges. The mountain overlooks the Swiss town of Zermatt, in the canton of Valais, to the north-east and the Italian town of Breuil-Cervinia in the Aosta Valley to the south. Just east of the Matterhorn is Theodul Pass, the main passage between the two valleys on its north and south sides, and a trade route since the Roman Era.</p><br>
<p>The Matterhorn was studied by Horace-Bénédict de Saussure in the late eighteenth century, who was followed by other renowned naturalists and artists, such as John Ruskin, in the nineteenth century. It remained unclimbed after most of the other great Alpine peaks had been attained and became the subject of an international competition for the summit. The first ascent of the Matterhorn was finally made in 1865 from Zermatt, by a party led by Edward Whymper, but ended disastrously when four of its members fell to their deaths on the descent. That climb and disaster, later portrayed in several films, marked the end of the golden age of alpinism. The north face was not climbed until 1931 and is amongst the three biggest north faces of the Alps, known as "The Trilogy". The west face, which is the highest of the Matterhorn&#39;s four faces, was completely climbed only in 1962. It is estimated that over 500 alpinists have died on the Matterhorn since the first climb in 1865, making it one of the deadliest peaks in the world.</p><br>
<p>The Matterhorn is mainly composed of gneisses (originally fragments of the African Plate before the Alpine orogeny) from the Dent Blanche nappe, lying over ophiolites and sedimentary rocks of the Penninic nappes. The mountain&#39;s current shape is the result of cirque erosion due to multiple glaciers diverging from the peak, such as the Matterhorn Glacier at the base of the north face, forming a horn.</p><br>
<p>Sometimes referred to as the Mountain of Mountains (Berg der Berge), the Matterhorn has become an iconic emblem of the Swiss Alps and of the Alps in general. Since the end of the 19th century, when railways were built in the area, the mountain has attracted increasing numbers of visitors and climbers. Each year, numerous mountaineers try to climb the Matterhorn from the Hörnli Hut via the northeast Hörnli ridge, the most popular route to the summit. Many trekkers also undertake the 10-day-long circuit around the mountain. The Matterhorn has been part of the Swiss Federal Inventory of Natural Monuments since 1983.</p><br>
<h2>Names</h2><br>
<p>The German name Matterhorn is named for Mattertal and Zermatt (historically Matt "alpine meadow", the prefix zer- is a preposition).</p><br>
<p>In the Schalbetter map, printed by Sebastian Münster in 1545, the valley is labelled Mattertal, but the mountain has the Latin name Mons Silvius and the German name Augstalberg, Augstal being the German name of Aosta Valley (from Augusta Praetoria Salassorum). The 1548 map by Johannes Stumpf gives only Mons Silvius.</p><br>
<p>The French name Cervin, from which the Italian term Cervino derives, stems from the Latin Mons Silvanus (or Mons Sylvanus), where silva means forest; this was corrupted to Selvin and then Servin. The change of the first letter "s" to "c" is attributed to Horace Bénédict de Saussure, who thought the word was related to "deer" (French: cerf and Italian: cervo).</p><br>
<p>Josias Simler hypothesized in De Alpibus Commentarius (1574) that the name Mons Silvius was readopted by T. G. Farinetti: "Silvius was probably a Roman leader who sojourned with his legions in the land of the Salassi and the Seduni, and perhaps crossed the Theodul Pass between these two places. This Silvius may have been that same Servius Galba whom Caesar charged with the opening up of the Alpine passes, which from that time onward traders have been wanting to cross with great danger and grave difficulty. Servius Galba, in order to carry out Caesar&#39;s orders, came with his legions from Allobroges (Savoy) to Octodurum (Martigny) in the Valais, and pitched his camp there. The passes which he had orders to open from there could be no other than the St. Bernard, the Simplon, the Theodul, and the Moro; it therefore seems likely that the name of Servius, whence Silvius and later Servin, or Cervin, was given in his honour to the famous pyramid." It is unknown when the new name of Servin, or Cervin, replaced the old, from which it seems to be derived.</p><br>
<p>The Matterhorn is also named Gran Becca by the Valdôtains and Horu by the local Walliser German speaking people.</p><br>
<h2>Height</h2><br>
<p>The Matterhorn has two distinct summits, situated at either end of a 100 m exposed rocky crest which forms the Swiss/Italian border. The Swiss summit, with a height of, lies on the eastern end, above the Hörnli ridge which itself lies wholly within Switzerland and was the route of the first ascent. The slightly lower Italian summit at lies to the west. In August 1792, the Genevan geologist and explorer Horace Bénédict de Saussure made the first measurement of the Matterhorn&#39;s height, using a sextant and a 50 ft chain spread out on the Theodul glacier. He calculated its height as. In 1868 the Italian engineer Felice Giordano measured a height of by means of a mercury barometer, which he had taken to the summit. The Dufour map, which was afterwards followed by the Italian surveyors, gave as the height of the Swiss summit.</p><br>
<p>In 1999, the summit height was precisely determined to be at above sea level by using Global Positioning System technology as part of the TOWER Project (Top of the World Elevations Remeasurement) and to an accuracy of less than one centimetre, which allows future changes to be tracked.</p><br>
<p>The topographic prominence of the Matterhorn is 1,042 m as the ridge connecting it with a higher summit (in this case the Weisshorn, which is the culminating point of the range west of the Mattertal valley) sinks to a height of at the Col Durand, a saddle between the Pointe de Zinal and the Mont Durand. The topographic isolation is, as the nearest point of higher elevation is the 1 m higher Western Liskamm.</p><br>
<p>Considering mountains with a topographic prominence of at least, the Matterhorn is the sixth-highest summit in the Alps and Europe outside the Caucasus Mountains. It is the fifth-highest summit of Valais and Switzerland and the third highest summit of the Aosta Valley and Italy. Locally, it is the third-highest summit in the municipality of Zermatt and the highest summit in the municipality of Valtournenche. On the official International Climbing and Mountaineering Federation list of Alpine four-thousanders, which also includes subsidiary summits of higher mountains such as the nearby Monte Rosa, the Matterhorn is the 12th highest summit in the Alps.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Matterhorn has a pyramidal shape with four faces nearly facing the four compass points. Three of them (north, east and west) are on the Swiss side of the border and watershed (Mattertal valley) and one of them (south) is on the Italian side of the border (Valtournenche valley). The north face overlooks the Ober Gabelhorn (7 km away) across the Zmutt Glacier and valley (above Zermatt), the east face overlooks the Gorner Glacier system between the Gornergrat and Monte Rosa (respectively 10 and 17 km away) across the Theodul Pass, the west face overlooks the upper basin of the Zmutt Glacier between the Dent Blanche and the Dent d&#39;Hérens (respectively 7 and 4 km away) and the south face fronts the resort town of Breuil-Cervinia and overlooks a good portion of the Valtournenche. The Matterhorn does not form a perfect square pyramid, as the north and south faces are wider than the west and east faces. Moreover, the latter faces do not actually meet on the summit but are connected by a 100-metre-long horizontal west–east ridge between the north and south faces.</p><br>
<p>The Matterhorn&#39;s faces are steep, and only small patches of snow and ice cling to them; regular avalanches send the snow down to accumulate on the glaciers at the base of each face, the largest of which are the Tiefmattengletscher to the west, part of the Zmutt Glacier, and the Matterhorn Glacier to the north. Smaller glaciers lie at the base of the south face (the Ghiacciaio Inferiore del Cervino) and the east face (unnamed). In this area, the border between Switzerland and Italy coincides with the main Alpine watershed, separating the drainage basin of the Rhone on the north (Mediterranean Sea) and that of the Po on the south (Adriatic Sea). The north side is drained by the Zmuttbach (west and north faces) and the Gornera through the Furggbach (east face), tributaries of the Rhone through the (Matter) Vispa. The south side and face is drained by the Torrente Cervino, tributary of the Po through the Marmore and the Dora Baltea. The Theodul Pass, located on the watershed between the Matterhorn and the Breithorn, at 3,295 metres, is the easiest passage between the two valleys and countries (the slightly lower Furggjoch not being used as a pass). The pass was used as a crossover and trade route for the Romans and the Romanised Celts between 100 BCE and 400 CE. The area is now heavily glaciated and covered on the north side by the Theodul Glacier.</p><br>
<p>Well-known faces are the east and north, visible from the area of Zermatt, although mostly hidden from the Mattertal by the chain of the Weisshorn. The east face is 1,000 metres high and, because it is "a long, monotonous slope of rotten rocks", presents a high risk of rockfall, making its ascent dangerous. The north face is 1,200 metres high and is one of the most dangerous north faces in the Alps, in particular for its risk of rockfall and storms. The south face, well visible from the Valtournenche, is 1,350 metres high and offers many different routes. The west face, the highest at 1,400 metres, has the fewest ascent routes and lies in a more remote area than the other faces.</p><br>
<p>The four main ridges separating the four faces are the main climbing routes. The least difficult technical climb and the usual climbing route, the Hörnli ridge (Hörnligrat), lies between the east and north faces and is aligned towards the Oberrothorn above Zermatt. To its west lies the Zmutt ridge (Zmuttgrat), between the north and west faces and aligned towards the Wandfluehorn; this is, according to Collomb, "the classic route up the mountain, its longest ridge, also the most disjointed." The Lion ridge (Cresta del Leone), lying between the south and west faces and aligned towards the Dent d&#39;Hérens is the Italian normal route and goes across Pic Tyndall; Collomb comments, "A superb rock ridge, the shortest on the mountain, now draped with many fixed ropes, but a far superior climb compared with the Hörnli." Finally the south side is separated from the east side by the Furggen ridge (Furggengrat), which is aligned towards the Klein Matterhorn. It is, according to Collomb, "the hardest of the ridges the ridge still has an awesome reputation but is not too difficult in good conditions by the indirect finish".</p><br>
<p>While the Matterhorn is the culminating point of the Valtournenche on the south, it is only one of the many 4000 metres summits of the Mattertal valley on the north. Its height is exceeded by four major summits: the Weisshorn (4,505 m), the Dom (4,545 m), the Liskamm (4,527 m) and the second highest in the Alps, Monte Rosa (4,634 m). This section of the Pennine Alps, including the Matterhorn, the Zinalrothorn, the Dent Blanche, the Dent dHérens, the Breithorn, the Strahlhorn, the Rimpfischhorn and the Alphubel, concentrates most of western Europes highest mountains and forms a crown of peaks around Zermatt. The deeply glaciated region between the Matterhorn and Monte Rosa (named Dent Blanche-Matterhorn-Monte Rosa) is listed in the Federal Inventory of Landscapes and Natural Monuments since 1983.</p><br>
<h2>Weather</h2><br>
<p>The Matterhorn is an isolated mountain. Because of its position on the main Alpine watershed and its great height, the Matterhorn is exposed to rapid weather changes. In addition, the steep faces of the mountain and its isolated location make it prone to banner clouds formation, with the air flowing around the mountain producing condensation of the air on the lee side and also creating vortices.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Apart from the base of the mountain, the Matterhorn is composed of gneiss belonging to the Dent Blanche klippe, an isolated part of the Austroalpine nappes, lying over the Penninic nappes. The Austroalpine nappes are part of the Apulian plate, a small continent which broke up from Africa before the Alpine orogeny. For this reason the Matterhorn has been popularized as an African mountain. The Austroalpine nappes are mostly common in the Eastern Alps.</p><br>
<p>The Swiss explorer and geologist Horace-Bénédict de Saussure, inspired by the view of the Matterhorn, anticipated the modern theories of geology:</p><br>
<h3>Formation</h3><br>
<p>The formation of the Matterhorn (and the whole Alpine range) started with the break-up of the Pangaea continent 200 million years ago into Laurasia (containing Europe) and Gondwana (containing Africa). While the rocks constituting the nearby Monte Rosa remained in Laurasia, the rocks constituting the Matterhorn found themselves in Gondwana, separated by the newly formed Tethys Ocean.</p><br>
<p>100 million years ago the extension of the Tethys Ocean stopped and the Apulian plate broke from Gondwana and moved toward the European continent. This resulted in the closure of the western Tethys by subduction under the Apulian plate (with the Piemont-Liguria Ocean first and Valais Ocean later). The subduction of the oceanic crust left traces still visible today at the base of the Matterhorn (accretionary prism). The orogeny itself began after the end of the oceanic subduction when the European continental crust collided with the Apulian continent, resulting in the formation of nappes.</p><br>
<p>The Matterhorn acquired its characteristic pyramidal shape in much more recent times as it was caused by natural erosion over the past million years. At the beginning of alpine orogeny, the Matterhorn was only a rounded mountain like a hill. Because its height is above the snowline, its flanks are covered by ice, resulting from the accumulation and compaction of snow. During the warmer period of summer, part of the ice melts and seeps into the bedrock. When it freezes again, it fractures pieces of rock because of its dilatation (freeze-thaw), forming a cirque. Four cirques led to the shape of the mountain. Because of its recognizable shape, many other similar mountains around the world were named or nicknamed the Matterhorn of their respective countries or mountain ranges.</p><br>
<h3>Rocks</h3><br>
<p>Most of the base of the mountain lies in the Tsaté nappe, a remnant of the Piedmont-Liguria oceanic crust (ophiolites) and its sedimentary rocks. Up to 3,400 metres the mountain is composed of successive layers of ophiolites and sedimentary rocks. From 3,400 metres to the top, the rocks are gneisses from the Dent Blanche nappe (Austroalpine nappes). They are divided into the Arolla series (below 4,200 m) and the Valpelline zone (the summit). Other mountains in the region (Weisshorn, Zinalrothorn, Dent Blanche, Mont Collon) also belong to the Dent Blanche nappe.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism and trekking</h2><br>
<p>Since the eighteenth century the Alps have attracted more and more people and fascinated generations of explorers and climbers. The Matterhorn remained relatively little known until 1865, but the successful ascent followed by the tragic accident of the expedition led by Edward Whymper caused a rush on the mountains surrounding Zermatt.</p><br>
<p>The construction of the railway linking the village of Zermatt from the town of Visp started in 1888. The first train reached Zermatt on July 18, 1891 and the entire line was electrified in 1930. Since 1930 the village is directly connected to St. Moritz by the Glacier Express panoramic train. However there is no connection with the village of Breuil-Cervinia on the Italian side. Travellers have to hire mountain guides to cross the 3,300 metres high glaciated Theodul Pass, separating the two resorts. The town of Zermatt remains almost completely free of internal combustion vehicles and can be reached by train only. (Apart from the local police service which uses a Volkswagen car, only electric vehicles are used locally).</p><br>
<p>Rail and cable-car facilities have been built to make some of the summits in the area more accessible. The Gornergrat railway, reaching a record altitude of 3,100 metres, was inaugurated in 1898. Areas served by cable car are the Unterrothorn and the Klein Matterhorn (Little Matterhorn) (3,883 m, highest transportation system in Europe). The Hörnli Hut (3,260 m), which is the start of the normal route via the Hörnli ridge, is easily accessible from Schwarzsee (2,600 m) and is also frequented by hikers. The Zermatt and Cervinia resorts function as separate ski resort all year round and are connected by skilifts over the Theodul Pass. In 2015 it was expected that there would be constructed a cable car link between Testa Grigia and Klein Matterhorn. It will finally provide a link between the Swiss and Italian side of the Matterhorn.</p><br>
<p>The Matterhorn Museum (Zermatt) relates the general history of the region from alpinism to tourism. In the museum, which is in the form of a reconstituted mountain village, the visitors can relive the first and tragic ascent of the Matterhorn and see the objects having belonged to the protagonists.</p><br>
<p>The Tour of the Matterhorn can be effected by trekkers in about 10 days. Considered by some as one of the most beautiful treks in the Alps, it follows many ancient trails that have linked the Swiss and Italian valleys for centuries. The circuit includes alpine meadows, balcony trails, larch forests and glacial crossings. It connects six valleys embracing three different cultures: the German-speaking high Valais, the French-speaking central Valais and the Italian-speaking Val d&#39;Aosta. Good conditions are necessary to circumnavigate the peak. After reaching Zinal from Zermatt by the Augstbord and Meiden passes, the trekker crosses the Col de Sorebois and the Col de Torrent before arriving at Arolla. Then the Arolla Glacier and the Col Collon must be crossed on the way to Prarayer, followed by the Col de Valcournera to Breuil-Cervinia. In the last and highest section, the Theodul Pass must be crossed before returning to Zermatt. In total, seven passes between 2,800 and 3,300 metres must be crossed on a relatively difficult terrain.</p><br>
<p>As of 2015 almost two million visitors arrive at Zermatt annually. An average of around twelve people per year have died on Matterhorn in the ten years from 2005 to 2015.</p><br>
<h2>Climbing history</h2><br>
<p>The Matterhorn was one of the last of the main Alpine mountains to be ascended, not because of its technical difficulty, but because of the fear it inspired in early mountaineers. The first serious attempts were all from the Italian side, although the southern routes despite appearances are technically harder. The main figures were Jean-Antoine Carrel and his uncle Jean-Jacques Carrel, from the Valtournenche area, who made the first attempts in 1857 and 1858, reaching on the latter occasion. In July 1860, three brothers from Liverpool attempted the mountain, Alfred, Charles and Sandbach Parker, but they turned back at about. In August of the same year, Jean-Jacques Carrel returned to guide, with, Vaughan Hawkins and John Tyndall to about before turning back. In 1861 the Carrels managed to reach the Crête du Coq at. In July 1862, Jean-Antoine, together with César Carrel, accompanied as porters (sic) John Tyndall, Anton Walters and J.J. Bennen to Matterhorn&#39;s Shoulder at, which was subsequently named Pic Tyndall in honor of the client.</p><br>
<p>Edward Whymper joined the efforts in August 1861, but in his first 7 attempts with a variety of companions could only reach a maximum height of. However, on July 14, 1865, in what is considered the last ascent of the golden age of alpinism, he was able to reach the summit by an ascent of the Hörnli ridge in Switzerland, guided by the famed French mountaineer Michel Croz and the Swiss father and son Peter Taugwalder Sr. and Jr., and accompanied by the British gentlemen Charles Hudson, Lord Francis Douglas, Douglas Robert Hadow. Upon descent, Hadow, Croz, Hudson and Douglas fell to their deaths on the Matterhorn Glacier, and all but Douglas (whose body was never found) are buried in the Zermatt churchyard.</p><br>
<p>Just three days later, on July 17, 1865, Jean-Antoine Carrel and Jean-Baptiste Bich reached the summit from the Italian side.</p><br>
<h3>Before the first ascent</h3><br>
<p>In the summer of 1860, Edward Whymper came across the Matterhorn for the first time. He was an English artist and engraver who had been hired by a London publisher to make sketches of the mountains in the region of Zermatt. Although the unclimbed Matterhorn had a mixed reputation among British mountaineers, it fascinated Whymper. Whympers first attempt was in August 1861, from the village of Breuil on the south side. In Chatillon he hired a Swiss guide, who remained anonymous in his accounts, and in Valtournanche he almost hired Jean-Antoine Carrel as well, but, disliking the looks of Carrels uncle, he changed his mind. The Carrels decided to give Matterhorn a try by themselves again, and caught up with Whymper at nightfall. Whymper now had "a strong inclination to engage the pair; but, finally, decided against it" and the Carrels went alone to reach a new high on Matterhorn of the next day. Whymper and his guide camped one more night on the Col du Lion (=Col Tournanche) and were forced to turn around only an hour above this pass the day after.</p><br>
<p>In 1862 Whymper made further attempts, still from the south side, on the Lion ridge (or Italian ridge), where the route seemed easier than the Hörnli ridge (the normal route today). On his own he reached above 4,000 metres, but was injured on his way down to Breuil. In July John Tyndall with Johann Joseph Bennen and another guide overcame most of the difficulties of the ridge that seemed so formidable from below and successfully reached the main shoulder; but at a point not very far below the summit they were stopped by a deep cleft that defied their utmost efforts. The Matterhorn remained unclimbed.</p><br>
<p>Whymper returned to Breuil in 1863, persuading Carrel to join forces with him and try the mountain once more via the Italian ridge. On this attempt, however, a storm soon developed and they were stuck halfway to the summit. They remained there for 26 hours in their tent before giving up. Whymper did not make another attempt for two years.</p><br>
<p>In the decisive year 1865, Whymper returned with new plans, deciding to attack the Matterhorn via its south face instead of the Italian ridge. On June 21, Whymper began his ascent with Swiss guides, but halfway up they experienced severe rockfall; although nobody was injured, they decided to give up the ascent. This was Whymper&#39;s seventh attempt.</p><br>
<p>During the following weeks, Whymper spent his time climbing other mountains in the area with his guides, before going back to Breuil on July 7. Meanwhile the Italian Alpine Club was founded and its leaders, Felice Giordano and Quintino Sella, established plans to conquer the Matterhorn before any non-Italian could succeed. Felice Giordano hired Carrel as a guide. He feared the arrival of Whymper, now a rival, and wrote to Quintino Sella:</p><br>
<p>Just as he did two years before, Whymper asked Carrel to be his guide, but Carrel declined; Whymper was also unsuccessful in hiring other local guides from Breuil. When Whymper discovered Giordano and Carrel&#39;s plan, he left Breuil and crossed the Theodul Pass to Zermatt to hire local guides. He encountered Lord Francis Douglas, a Scottish mountaineer, who also wanted to climb the Matterhorn. They arrived later in Zermatt in the Monte Rosa Hotel, where they met two other British climbers — the Reverend Charles Hudson and his young and inexperienced companion, Douglas Robert Hadow — who had hired the French guide Michel Croz to try to make the first ascent. These two groups decided to join forces and try the ascent of the Hörnli ridge. They hired another two local guides, a father and son, both named Peter Taugwalder.</p><br>
<h3>First ascent</h3><br>
<p>Whymper and party left Zermatt early in the morning of July 13, 1865, heading to the foot of the Hörnli ridge, which they reached 6 hours later (approximately where the Hörnli Hut is situated today). Meanwhile Carrel and six other Italian guides also began their ascent of the Italian ridge.</p><br>
<p>Despite its appearance, Whymper wrote that the Hörnli ridge was much easier to climb than the Italian ridge:</p><br>
<p>After camping for the night, Whymper and party started on the ridge. According to Whymper:</p><br>
<p>When the party came close to the summit, they had to leave the ridge for the north face because " was usually more rotten and steep, and always more difficult than the face". At this point of the ascent Whymper wrote that the less experienced Hadow "required continual assistance". Having overcome these difficulties the group finally arrived in the summit area, with Croz and Whymper reaching the top first.</p><br>
<p>Precisely at this moment, Carrel and party were approximatively 400 metres below, still dealing with the most difficult parts of the Italian ridge. When seeing his rival on the summit, Carrel and party gave up on their attempt and went back to Breuil.</p><br>
<p>After building a cairn, Whymper and party stayed an hour on the summit. Then they began their descent of the Hörnli ridge. Croz descended first, then Hadow, Hudson and Douglas, the elder Taugwalder, Whymper, with the younger Taugwalder coming last. They climbed down with great care, only one man moving at a time. Whymper wrote:</p><br>
<p>The weight of the falling men pulled Hudson and Douglas from their holds and dragged them down the north face. The Taugwalders and Whymper were left alive when the rope linking Douglas to the elder Taugwalder broke. They were stunned by the accident and for a time could not move until the younger Taugwalder descended to enable them to advance. When they were together Whymper asked to see the broken rope and saw that it had been employed by mistake as it was the weakest and oldest of the three ropes they had brought. They frequently looked, but in vain, for traces of their fallen companions. They continued their descent, including an hour in the dark, until 9.30 p.m. when a resting place was found. At daybreak the descent was resumed and the group finally reached Zermatt, where a search of the victims was quickly organized. The bodies of Croz, Hadow and Hudson were found on the Matterhorn Glacier, but the body of Douglas was never found. Although the elder Taugwalder was accused of cutting the rope to save himself and his son, the official inquest found no proof of this.</p><br>
<h3>Second ascent</h3><br>
<p>On July 16, two days after the first ascent and the catastrophe, Jean-Antoine Carrel set out to crown Whympers victory by proving that the Italian side was not unconquerable. He was accompanied by Amé Gorret, a priest who had shared with him the first attempt on the mountain back in 1857. Jean-Baptiste Bich and Jean-Augustin Meynet completed the party. Giordano would have joined them, but Carrel refused absolutely to take him with them; he said he would not have the strength to guide a traveller, and could neither answer for the result nor for any ones life. After hearing Sunday mass at the chapel of Breuil, the party started. Amé Gorret has described this ascent with enthusiasm: "At last we crossed the Col du Lion and set foot upon the pyramid of the Matterhorn!" On the following day, the 17th, they continued the ascent and reached Tyndall&#39;s flagstaff. "We were about to enter unknown country," wrote Gorret, "for no man had gone beyond this point." Here opinions were divided; Gorret suggested ascending by the ridge and scaling the last tower straight up. Carrel was inclined to traverse to the west of the peak, and thence go up on the Zmutt side. Naturally the wish of Carrel prevailed, for he was the leader and had not lost the habit of command, notwithstanding his recent defeat.</p><br>
<p>They made the passage of the enjambée, and traversed the west face to reach the Zmutt ridge. A false step made by one of the party and a fall of icicles from above warned them to return to the direct line of ascent, and the traverse back to the Lion ridge was one of the greatest difficulty. A falling stone injured Gorret in the arm.</p><br>
<p>At last they reached the base of the final tower. "We stood," wrote Gorret, "in a place that was almost comfortable. Although it was not more than two yards wide, and the slope was one of 75 percent, we gave it all kinds of pleasant names: the corridor, the gallery, the railroad, &c., &c." They imagined all difficulties were at an end; but a rock couloir, which they had hitherto not observed, lay between them and the final bit of ridge, where progress would be perfectly easy. It would have been unwise for all four to descend into the couloir, because they did not know where to fix the rope that would be needed on their return. Time pressed: it was necessary to reduce the numbers of the party; Gorret sacrificed himself, and Meynet stopped with him. Very soon afterwards Carrel and Bich were finally on the top. Meanwhile Giordano at Breuil was writing in his diary as follows: "Splendid weather; at 9.30 saw Carrel and his men on the Shoulder, after that saw nothing more of them. Then much mist about the summit. Lifted a bit about 3.30, and we saw our flag on the western summit of the Matterhorn."</p><br>
<h3>Other ascents</h3><br>
<h4>Ridges</h4><br>
<p>The first direct ascent of the Italian (south-west) ridge as it is climbed today was by J. J. and J. P. Maquignaz on September 13, 1867. Julius Elliott made the second ascent via the Hörnli (north-east) ridge in 1868, and later that year the party of John Tyndall, J. J. and J. P. Maquignaz was the first to traverse the summit by way of the Hörnli and Italian ridges. On August 22, 1871, while wearing a white print dress, Lucy Walker became the first woman to reach the summit of the Matterhorn, followed a few weeks later by her rival Meta Brevoort. The first winter ascent of the Hörnli ridge was by Vittorio Sella with guides J. A. Carrel, J. B. Carrel and L. Carrel on March 17, 1882, and its first solo ascent was made by W. Paulcke in 1898. The first winter solo ascent of the Hörnli ridge was by G. Gervasutti in 1936.</p><br>
<p>The Zmutt (north-west) ridge was first climbed by Albert F. Mummery, Alexander Burgener, J. Petrus and A. Gentinetta on September 3, 1879. Its first solo ascent was made by Hans Pfann in 1906, and the first winter ascent was made by H. Masson and E. Petrig on March 25, 1948.</p><br>
<p>The last of the Matterhorn&#39;s four ridges to be ascended was the Furggen (south-east) ridge. M. Piacenza with guides J. J. Carrel and J. Gaspard on September 9, 1911, climbed most of the ridge but bypassed the overhangs near the top to the south. Not until September 23, 1942, during the Second World War, did Alfredo Perino, along with guides Louis Carrel (nicknamed "The Little Carrel") and Giacomo Chiara, climb the complete ridge and the overhangs directly.</p><br>
<p>In 1985 Marco Barmasse made the first solo enchainement of the four Matterhorn ridges in 15 hours, with the first solo ascent of the Furggen overhangs. He started from Bivacco Bossi and climbed the Furggen ridge up the Furggen overhangs. He descended along the Hornli ridge, crossed at the bottom of the North face, climbed up the Zmutt ridge and down the Italian route to Duca degli Abruzzi Oriondé Refuge, at 2802 m.</p><br>
<p>On August 20, 1992 Italian alpinist Hans Kammerlander and Swiss alpine guide Diego Wellig climbed the Matterhorn four times in just 23 hours and 26 minutes. The route they followed was: Zmutt ridge–summit–Hörnli ridge (descent)–Furggen ridge–summit–Lion ridge (descent)–Lion ridge–summit–Hörnli ridge (descent)–Hörnli ridge–summit–Hörnli Hut (descent). However the Italian route (Lion Ridge), was not climbed from Duca degli Abruzzi Refuge at 2802 m, but from Carrel Hut, at 3830 m, both uphill and downhill.</p><br>
<p>In 1995, Bruno Brunod climbed Matterhorn from the village Breuil-Cervinia in 2 h 10 min. and from Breuil-Cervinia to Matterhorn and back, of 3:14:44 by Bruno Brunod in 1995.</p><br>
<p>On August 21, 2013, the Spanish mountain runner Kilian Jornet broke Brunod&#39;s record as it took him 1 hour, 56 min to the top, and 2 hours, 52 minutes from Breuil-Cervinia to the top and back.</p><br>
<h4>Faces</h4><br>
<p>William Penhall and guides made the first (partial) ascent of the west face, the Matterhorns most hidden and unknown, one hour after Mummery and partys first ascent of the Zmutt ridge on September 3, 1879. It was not until 1962 that the west face was completely climbed. The ascent was made on August 13 by Renato Daguin and Giovanni Ottin. In January 1978 seven Italian alpine guides made a successful winter climb of Daguin and Ottin&#39;s highly direct, and previously unrepeated, 1962 route. But a storm came during their ascent, bringing two metres of snow to Breuil-Cervinia and Zermatt, and their accomplishment turned bitter when one of the climbers died during the descent.</p><br>
<p>The north face, before it was climbed in 1931, was one of the last great big wall problems in the Alps. To succeed on the north face, good climbing and ice-climbing technique and route-finding ability were required. Unexpectedly it was first climbed by the brothers Franz and Toni Schmid on July 31–August 1, 1931. They reached the summit at the end of the second day, after a night of bivouac. Because they had kept their plans secret, their ascent was a complete surprise. In addition, the two brothers had travelled by bicycle from Munich and after their successful ascent they cycled back home again. The first winter ascent of the north face was made by Hilti von Allmen and Paul Etter on February 3–4, 1962. Its first solo ascent was made in five hours by Dieter Marchart on July 22, 1959. Walter Bonatti climbed the "North Face Direct" solo on February 18–22, 1965. The same year, Yvette Vaucher became the first woman to climb the north face. Bonatti&#39;s direct route was not repeated solo until 29 years later, in winter 1994 by Catherine Destivelle.</p><br>
<p>Ueli Steck set the record time in climbing the north face (Schmid route) of Matterhorn in 2009 with a time of 1 hour 56 minutes.</p><br>
<p>After Bonatti&#39;s climb, the best alpinists were still preoccupied with one last great problem: the "Zmutt Nose", an overhang lying on the right-hand side of the north face. In July 1969 two Italians, Alessandro Gogna and Leo Cerruti, attempted to solve the problem. It took them four days to figure out the unusual overhangs, avoiding however its steepest part. In July 1981 the Swiss Michel Piola and Pierre-Alain Steiner surmounted the Zmutt Nose by following a direct route, the Piola-Steiner.</p><br>
<p>The first ascent of the south face was made by Enzo Benedetti with guides Louis Carrel and Maurice Bich on October 15, 1931, and the first complete ascent of the east face was made by Enzo Benedetti and G. Mazzotti with guides Louis and Lucien Carrel, Maurice Bich and Antoine Gaspard on September 18–19, 1932.</p><br>
<h3>Legacy-beginning of mountain culture</h3><br>
<p>The first ascent of the Matterhorn changed mountain culture. Whymper’s book about his first ascent, Scrambles Amongst the Alps, published in 1871, was a worldwide bestseller. Tourists began to visit Switzerland in the summer to see the Alps and often hired locals as guides. With the beginning of alpine skiing in the early 20th century, tourists began traveling to Switzerland in winter also. Mountaineering, in part, helped transform Switzerland’s mountain regions from poor rural areas to tourist destinations. This combination of mountain climbing, skiing and tourism, was used in the western United States, creating Sun Valley, Vail, Jackson Hole, and mountain towns around the world.</p><br>
<h2>Climbing routes</h2><br>
<p>Today, all ridges and faces of the Matterhorn have been ascended in all seasons, and mountain guides take a large number of people up the northeast Hörnli route each summer. In total, up to 150 climbers attempt the Matterhorn each day during summer. By modern standards, the climb is fairly difficult (AD Difficulty rating), but not hard for skilled mountaineers according to French climbing grades. There are fixed ropes on parts of the route to help. Still, several climbers die each year due to a number of factors including the scale of the climb and its inherent dangers, inexperience, falling rocks, and overcrowded routes. The Matterhorn is thus amongst the deadliest mountains in the world. By the late 1980s, it was estimated that over 500 people have died whilst attempting its summit since the 1865 ascent, with an average of about 12 deaths each year.</p><br>
<p>The usual pattern of ascent is to take the Schwarzsee cable car up from Zermatt, hike up to the Hörnli Hut elev. 3,260 m, a large stone building at the base of the main ridge, and spend the night. The next day, climbers rise at 3:30 am so as to reach the summit and descend before the regular afternoon clouds and storms come in. The Solvay Hut located on the ridge at 4,003 m can be used only in a case of emergency.</p><br>
<p>Other popular routes on the mountain include the Italian (Lion) ridge (AD Difficulty rating) and the Zmutt ridge (D Difficulty rating). The four faces, as well as the Furggen ridge, constitute the most challenging routes to the summit. The north face is amongst the six most difficult faces of the Alps, as well as ‘The Trilogy’, the three hardest of the six, along with the north faces of the Eiger and the Grandes Jorasses (TD+ Difficulty rating).</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Aegidius Tschudi, one of the earliest Alpine topographers and historians, was the first to mention the region around the Matterhorn in his work, De Prisca ac Vera Alpina Raethi, published in Basel in 1538. He approached the Matterhorn as a student when in his Alpine travels he reached the summit of the Theodul Pass but he does not seem to have paid any particular attention to the mountain itself.</p><br>
<p>The Matterhorn remained unstudied for more than two centuries, until a geologist from Geneva, Horace Benedict de Saussure, travelled to the mountain, which filled him with admiration. However, de Saussure was not moved to climb the mountain, and had no hope of measuring its altitude by taking a barometer to its summit. "Its precipitous sides," he wrote, "which give no hold to the very snows, are such as to afford no means of access." Yet his scientific interest was kindled by "the proud peak which rises to so vast an altitude, like a triangular obelisk, that seems to be carved by a chisel." His mind intuitively grasped the causes which gave the peak its present precipitous form: the Matterhorn was not like a perfected crystal; the centuries had laboured to destroy a great part of an ancient and much larger mountain. On his first journey de Saussure had come from Ayas to the Col des Cimes Blanches, from where the Matterhorn first comes into view; descending to Breuil, he ascended to the Theodul Pass. On his second journey, in 1792, he came to the Valtournanche, studying and describing it; he ascended to the Theodul Pass, where he spent three days, analysing the structure of the Matterhorn, whose height he was the first to measure, and collecting stones, plants and insects. He made careful observations, from the sparse lichen that clung to the rocks to the tiny but vigorous glacier fly that fluttered over the snows and whose existence at such heights was mysterious. At night he took refuge under the tent erected near the ruins of an old fort at the top of the pass. During these days he climbed the Klein Matterhorn (3,883 metres), which he named the Cime Brune du Breithorn.</p><br>
<p>The first inquirers began to come to the Matterhorn. There is a record of a party of Englishmen who in the summer of 1800 crossed the Great St. Bernard Pass, a few months after the passage of Bonaparte; they came to Aosta and thence to Valtournanche, slept at the chalets of Breuil, and traversed the Theodul Pass, which they called Monte Rosa. The Matterhorn was to them an object of the most intense and continuous admiration.</p><br>
<p>The Matterhorn is mentioned in a guide-book to Switzerland by Johann Gottfried Ebel, which was published in Zürich towards the end of the eighteenth century, and translated into English in 1818. The mountain appeared in it under the three names of Silvius, Matterhorn, and Mont Cervin, and was briefly described as one of the most splendid and wonderful obelisks in the Alps. On Zermatt there was a note: "A place which may, perhaps, interest the tourist is the valley of Praborgne (Zermatt); it is bounded by huge glaciers which come right down into the valley; the village of Praborgne is fairly high, and stands at a great height above the glaciers; its climate is almost as warm as that of Italy, and plants belonging to hot countries are to be found there at considerable altitudes, above the ice."</p><br>
<p>William Brockedon, who came to the region in 1825, considered the crossing of the Theodul Pass from Breuil to Zermatt a difficult undertaking. He gave, however, expression to his enthusiasm on the summit. When he arrived exhausted on the top of the pass, he gazed "on the beautiful pyramid of the Cervin, more wonderful than aught else in sight, rising from its bed of ice to a height of 5,000 feet, a spectacle of indescribable grandeur." In this "immense natural amphitheatre, enclosed from time immemorial by snow-clad mountains and glaciers ever white, in the presence of these grand walls the mind is overwhelmed, not indeed that it is unable to contemplate the scene, but it staggers under the immensity of those objects which it contemplates."</p><br>
<p>Those who made their way up through the Valtournanche to the foot of the mountain were few in number. W. A. B. Coolidge, a diligent collector of old and new stories of the Alps, mentions that during those years, besides Brockedon, only Hirzel-Escher of Zürich, who crossed the Theodul Pass in 1822, starting from Breuil, accompanied by a local guide. The greater number came from the Valais up the Visp valley to Zermatt. In 1813, a Frenchman, Henri Maynard, climbed to the Theodul Pass and made the first ascent of the Breithorn; he was accompanied by numerous guides, among them J. M. Couttet of Chamonix, the same man who had gone with de Saussure to the top of the Klein Matterhorn in 1792.</p><br>
<p>The writings of these pioneers make much mention of the Matterhorn; the bare and inert rock is gradually quickened into life by men&#39;s enthusiasm. "Stronger minds," remarked Edward Whymper, "felt the influence of the wonderful form, and men who ordinarily spoke or wrote like rational beings, when they came under its power seemed to quit their senses, and ranted and rhapsodised, losing for a time all common forms of speech."</p><br>
<p>Among the poets of the Matterhorn during these years (1834 to 1840) were Elie de Beaumont, a famous French geologist; Pierre Jean Édouard Desor, a naturalist of Neuchâtel, who went up there with a party of friends, two of whom were Louis Agassiz and Bernhard Studer. Christian Moritz Engelhardt, who was so filled with admiration for Zermatt and its neighbourhood that he returned there at least ten times (from 1835 to 1855), described these places in two valuable volumes, drew panoramas and maps, and collected the most minute notes on the mineralogy and botany of the region. Zermatt was at that time a quiet little village, and travellers found hospitality at the parish priests, or at the village doctors.</p><br>
<p>In 1841 James David Forbes, professor of natural philosophy at the University of Edinburgh, came to see the Matterhorn. A philosopher and geologist, and an observant traveller, he continued the work of De Saussure in his journeys and his writings. He was full of admiration for the Matterhorn, calling it the most wonderful peak in the Alps, unsealed and unscalable. These words, pronounced by a man noted among all his contemporaries for his thorough knowledge of mountains, show what men&#39;s feelings then were towards the Matterhorn, and how at a time when the idea of Alpine exploration was gaining ground in their minds, the Matterhorn stood by itself as a mountain apart, of whose conquest it was vain even to dream. And such it remained till long after this; as such it was described by John Ball twenty years later in his celebrated guide-book. Forbes ascended the Theodul Pass in 1842, climbed the Breithorn, and came down to Breuil; as he descended from the savage scenery of the Matterhorn, the Italian landscapes of the Valtournanche seemed to him like paradise. Meanwhile Gottlieb Samuel Studer, the geographer, together with Melchior Ulrich, was describing and mapping the topographical features of the Zermatt peaks.</p><br>
<p>Rodolphe Töpffer, who first accompanied and guided youth to the Alps for purposes of education and amusement, began his journeys in 1832, but it is only in 1840 that he mentions the Matterhorn. Two years later Töpffer and his pupils came to Zermatt. He has described this journey of his in a chapter entitled Voyage autour du Mont Blanc jusquà Zermatt, here he sings a hymn of praise to the Matterhorn, comparing its form with a "huge crystal of a hundred facets, flashing varied hues, that softly reflects the light, unshaded, from the uttermost depths of the heavens". Töpffers book was illustrated by Alexandre Calame, his master and friend, with drawings of the Matterhorn, executed in the romantic style of the period. It is an artificial mountain, a picture corresponding rather with the exaggerated effect it produces on the astonished mind of the artist, than with the real form of the mountain.</p><br>
<p>About this time there came a man who studied the Matterhorn in its structure and form, and who sketched it and described it in all its parts with the curiosity of the artist and the insight of the scientist. This was John Ruskin, a new and original type of philosopher and geologist, painter and poet, whom England was enabled to create during that period of radical intellectual reforms, which led the way for the highest development of her civilisation. Ruskin was the Matterhorns poet par excellence. He went to Zermatt in 1844, and it is to be noticed as a curious fact, that the first time he saw the Matterhorn it did not please him. The mountain on its lofty pedestal in the very heart of the Alps was, perhaps, too far removed from the ideal he had formed of the mountains; but he returned, studied and dreamt for long at its feet, and at length he pronounced it "the most noble cliff in Europe." Ruskin was no mountaineer, nor a great friend to mountaineering; he drew sketches of the mountains merely as an illustration of his teaching of the beauty of natural forms, which was the object of his whole life. In his work on Modern Painters he makes continual use of the mountains as an example of beauty and an incentive to morality. The publication of Ruskins work certainly produced a great impression at the time on educated people in England, and a widespread desire to see the mountains.</p><br>
<p>Other men of high attainments followed, but in the years 1850 scientists and artists were about to be succeeded by real climbers and the passes and peaks around Zermatt were explored little by little. In the preface to the first volume of the Alpine Journal, which appeared in 1863, the editor Hereford Brooke George wrote that: "While even if all other objects of interest in Switzerland should be exhausted, the Matterhorn remains (who shall say for how long?) unconquered and apparently invincible."Whymper successfully reached the summit in 1865, but four men perished on the descent. The English papers discussed it with bitter words of blame; a German newspaper published an article in which Whymper was accused of cutting the rope between Douglas and Taugwalder, at the critical moment, to save his own life.</p><br>
<p>In 1890 the Federal Government was asked simultaneously by the same contractor for a concession for the Zermatt-Gornergrat railway, and for a Zermatt-Matterhorn one. The Gornergrat railway was constructed, and has been working since 1899, but there has been no more talk of the other. The project essentially consisted of a line which went up to the Hörnli, and continued thence in a rectilinear tunnel about two kilometres long, built under the ridge, and issuing near the summit on the Zmutt side. Sixty years later in 1950, Italian engineer Count Dino Lora Totino planned a cable car on the Italian side from Breuil-Cervinia to the summit. But the Alpine Museum of Zermatt sent a protest letter with 90,000 signatures to the Italian government. The latter declared the Matterhorn a natural wonder worthy of protection and refused the concession to the engineer.</p><br>
<p>During the 20th century, the Matterhorn and the story of the first ascent in particular, inspired various artists and film producers such as Luis Trenker and Walt Disney. Large-scale replicas can be found at Disneyland and Window of the World.</p><br>
<p>Designed in 1908 by Emil Cardinaux, a leading poster artist of the time, the Matterhorn affiche for the Zermatt tourist office is often considered the first modern poster. It has been described as a striking example of marriage of tourism, patriotism and popular art. It served as decoration in many Swiss military hospices during the war in addition to be found in countless middle class living rooms. Another affiche depicting the Matterhorn was created by Cardinaux for the chocolate brand Toblerone in the 1920s. Since then, the Matterhorn has become a reference that still inspires graphic artists today and has been used extensively for all sort of publicity and advertising.</p><br>
<p>In 2015 will be celebrated the 150th anniversary of the first ascent. Events and festivities will be held throughout the year. A completely renewed Hörnli Hut will open the same year in the beginning of July.</p><br>
<h2>Panorama</h2><br>
<h2>Filmography</h2><br>
<p>Struggle for the Matterhorn (1928)</p><br>
<p>The Mountain Calls (1938)</p><br>
<p>The Challenge (1938)</p><br>
<p>Climbing the Matterhorn (1947)</p><br>
<p>Third Man on the Mountain (1959)</p><br>
<p>Im Banne des Berges (2015)</p><br>
<p>Soarin&#39; Around the World/Soaring Over the Horizon (2016)</p><br>
<h2>Bibliography</h2><br>
<p>Guido Rey (translated J. E. C. Eaton), London, 1907</p><br>
<p>Beat P. Truffer: Matterhorn-DVD, 1:18 Film, 1&#39;001 Photos, 17 E-Books, 1 Audiobook, Aroleit-Verlag, Zermatt 2015, www.matterhornworld.ch</p><br>
<p>Charles Gos, Le Cervin (Attinger, 1948)</p><br>
<p>Yvan Hostettler, Matterhorn: Alpine Top Model (Olizane Edition, Geneva, 2006). The use of the Matterhorn in advertisement, publicity, movies, painting and arts</p><br>
<p>R. L. G. Irving, Ten Great Mountains (London, J. M. Dent & Sons, 1940)</p><br>
<p>Beat P. Truffler, The History of the Matterhorn: First Ascents, Projects and Adventures, 7th ed., (Aroleit-Verlag, Zermatt, 2015). Translation of Die Geschichte des Matterhorns from the German by Mirjam Steinmann</p><br>
<p>Edward Whymper, Scrambles Amongst the Alps (1871)</p><br>
<p>The book, Banner in the Sky, by James Ramsey Ullman is based on Edward Whympers ascent.</p><br>
<p>Col du Tourmalet  is the highest paved mountain pass in the French Pyrenees, located in the department of Hautes-Pyrénées. Sainte-Marie-de-Campan is at the foot on the eastern side and the ski station La Mongie two-thirds of the way up. The village of Barèges lies on the western side, above the town of Luz-Saint-Sauveur.</p><br>
<p>Tourmalet is also a cheese made from sheep milk produced in these mountains.</p><br>
<h2>Higher streets in the Pyrenees</h2><br>
<p>The Col du Tourmalet is the highest paved mountain pass in the French Pyrenees. However, in contrast to frequent claims (see for example ), it is neither the highest paved road in the French Pyrenees, nor the highest mountain pass in the French Pyrenees, nor the highest paved mountain pass in the Pyrenees. Paved roads leading to the mountain lakes Lac de Cap-de-Long and Lac dAumar in the same French Department Hautes-Pyrénées are higher, as these lakes are at altitudes of 2,161 m and 2,192 m, respectively. However, these roads are not mountain passes. Departing directly from the Col du Tourmalet we find a road to the mountain pass Col de Laquets with an altitude of 2,637 m However, this road is not paved. Finally, the highest paved mountain pass in the Pyrenees is the Port dEnvalira in Andorra with its altitude of 2,407 m.</p><br>
<h2>Meaning of "Tourmalet"</h2><br>
<p>Some Frenchmen believe that Tourmalet translates into "bad trip" or "bad detour" because in French Tour translates into "trip" and mal translates into "bad&quot however, the correct language to translate from is Gascon, not French, because of the mountain&#39;s location in the Gascony-region and the "du" in the name, which is the Gascon pendant to the French "de". Then Tour becomes "distance", which is spelled "tur" but pronounced "tour", mal is translated into "mountain", and et becomes "the". The translation from Gascon to English then becomes "The Distance Mountain".</p><br>
<h2>Details of the climb</h2><br>
<p>The western side, from Luz-Saint-Sauveur, is 19.0 km long, climbing 1,404 m at an average of 7.4% with a maximum of 10.2% near the summit. Starting from Sainte-Marie-de-Campan, the eastern climb is 17.2 km, gaining 1,268 m, at an average of 7.4% with a maximum of 12%. As with most French climbs, each kilometre mountain pass cycling milestones indicate the height of the summit, the distance to the summit, and the average gradient of the next kilometre.</p><br>
<p>From the pass, a rough track leads to the Pic du Midi de Bigorre observatory. Up to the Col de Laquets (elevation 2,637 m) this track is a dirt and gravel road. The part between the Col de Laquets and the observatory is a steep and narrow hiking track. Some terraces of the observatory can be entered for free from the end of the track. Paying an entrance fee, one can enter the actual observatory and also take the funicular down to La Mongie.</p><br>
<h2>Tour de France</h2><br>
<p>The Col du Tourmalet is one of the most famous climbs on the Tour de France. It has been included more than any other pass, starting in 1910, when the Pyrenees were introduced. The first rider over was Octave Lapize, who went on to win the general classification in Paris. In 1913, Eugène Christophe broke his fork on the Tourmalet and repaired it himself at a forge in Sainte-Marie-de-Campan.</p><br>
<p>Up to 2014, the Tour has visited the Col du Tourmalet a total of 83 times, including the uncategorised passage en route to Peyragudes on Stage 17 of the 2012 tour. The total includes two stage finishes at the summit and three at La Mongie. Since 1980 it has been ranked hors catégorie, or exceptional. The Vuelta a España has also crossed the pass several times.</p><br>
<p>The 2010 edition of the Tour included the pass on two consecutive stages, crossing westward on the 16th stage to Pau and eastward on the 17th stage with a finish at the summit.</p><br>
<p>At the col is a memorial to Jacques Goddet, director of the Tour de France from 1936 to 1987, and a large statue of Octave Lapize gasping for air as he struggles to make the climb.</p><br>
<p>The Souvenir Jacques Goddet prize is awarded for the first rider to cross the Col du Tourmalet summit.</p><br>
<h3>Origins in the Tour</h3><br>
<p>The Pyrenees were included in the Tour de France at the insistence of Alphonse Steinès, a colleague of the organiser, Henri Desgrange. He told the story in a book published soon after the event.</p><br>
<p>Steinès first agreed that the Tour would pay 2,000 francs to clear the Col d&#39;Aubisque, then came back to investigate the Tourmalet. He started at Sainte-Marie-de-Campan with sausage, ham and cheese at the inn opposite the church and arranged to hire a driver called Dupont from Bagnères-de-Bigorre. Dupont and Steinès made it the first 16 km, after which their car came to a stop. Dupont and Steinès started to walk but Dupont turned back after 600m, shouting: "The bears come over from Spain when it snows". Steinès set off. He mistook voices in the darkness for thieves. They were youngsters guarding sheep with their dog. Steinès called to one.</p><br>
<p>"Son, do you know the Tourmalet well? Could you guide me? Ill give you a gold coin. When we get to the other top, Ill give you another one"</p><br>
<p>The boy joined him but then turned back.</p><br>
<p>Steinès rested on a rock. He considered sitting it out until dawn, then realised he&#39;d freeze. He slipped on the icy road, then fell into a stream. He climbed back to the road and again fell in the snow. Exhausted and stumbling, he heard another voice.</p><br>
<p>"Tell me who goes there or I&#39;ll shoot".</p><br>
<p>"Im a lost traveller. Ive just come across the Tourmalet".</p><br>
<p>"Oh, its you, Monsieur Steinès! We were expecting you! We got a phone call at Ste-Marie-de-Campan. Everybodys at Barèges. Its coming on for three oclock. There are search teams of guides out looking for you".</p><br>
<p>The organising newspaper, L&#39;Auto, had a correspondent at Barèges, a man called Lanne-Camy. He took him for a bath and provided new clothes.</p><br>
<p>Steines sent a telegram to Desgrange: "Crossed Tourmalet stop. Very good road stop. Perfectly feasible".</p><br>
<h3>Tour de France stage finishes</h3><br>
<h3>Other appearances in Tour de France</h3><br>
<p>See also La Mongie.</p><br>
<h2>Other events</h2><br>
<p>The Col du Tourmalet features in other bicycle races, including the Vuelta a España when it has made excursions into France. It is also on the route of cyclosportive competitions. Thousands of amateur riders make the climb every year and many take documents to have rubber-stamped in the shop at the summit to show they have made it.</p><br>
<p>The Jungfrau  at 4,158 m is one of the main summits of the Bernese Alps, located between the northern canton of Bern and the southern canton of Valais, halfway between Interlaken and Fiesch. Together with the Eiger and Mönch, the Jungfrau forms a massive wall overlooking the Bernese Oberland and the Swiss Plateau, one of the most distinctive sights of the Swiss Alps.</p><br>
<p>The summit was first reached on August 3, 1811 by the Meyer brothers of Aarau and two chamois hunters from Valais. The ascent followed a long expedition over the glaciers and high passes of the Bernese Alps. It was not until 1865 that a more direct route on the northern side was opened.</p><br>
<p>The construction of the Jungfrau railway in the early 20th century, which connects Kleine Scheidegg to the Jungfraujoch, the saddle between the Mönch and the Jungfrau, made the area one of the most-visited places in the Alps. Along with the Aletsch Glacier to the south, the Jungfrau is part of the Jungfrau-Aletsch area, which was declared a World Heritage Site in 2001.</p><br>
<h2>Geographic setting</h2><br>
<p>Politically, the Jungfrau is split between the municipalities of Lauterbrunnen (Bern) and Fieschertal (Valais). It is the third-highest mountain of the Bernese Alps after the nearby Finsteraarhorn and Aletschhorn, respectively 12 and 8 km away. But from Lake Thun, and the greater part of the canton of Bern, it is the most conspicuous and the nearest of the Bernese Oberland peaks; with a height difference of 3,600 m between the summit and the town of Interlaken. This, and the extreme steepness of the north face, secured for it an early reputation for inaccessibility.</p><br>
<p>The Jungfrau is the westernmost and highest point of a gigantic 10 km wall dominating the valleys of Lauterbrunnen and Grindelwald. The wall is formed by the alignment of some of the biggest north faces in the Alps, with the Mönch (4,107 m) and Eiger (3,967 m) to the east of the Jungfrau, and overlooks the valleys to its north by a height of up to 3 km. The Jungfrau is approximately 6 km from the Eiger; with the summit of the Mönch between the two mountains, 3.5 km from the Jungfrau. The wall is extended to the east by the Fiescherwand and to the west by the Lauterbrunnen Wall.</p><br>
<p>The difference of altitude between the deep valley of Lauterbrunnen (800 m) and the summit is particularly visible from the area of Mürren. From the valley floor, west of the massif, the altitude gain is more than 3 km for a horizontal distance of 4 km.</p><br>
<p>The landscapes around the Jungfrau are extremely contrasted. Instead of the vertiginous precipices of the north-west, the south-east side emerges from the upper snows of the Aletsch Glacier at around 3,500 metres. The 20 km long valley of Aletsch on the south-east is completely uninhabited and also surrounded by other similar glacier valleys. The whole area constitutes the largest glaciated area in the Alps as well as in Europe.</p><br>
<h2>Climbing history</h2><br>
<p>In 1811, the brothers Johann Rudolf (1768–1825) and Hieronymus Meyer, sons of Johann Rudolf Meyer (1739–1813), the head of a rich merchant family of Aarau, with several servants and a porter picked up at Guttannen, having reached the Valais by way of the Grimsel, crossed the Beich Pass, a glacier pass over the Oberaletsch Glacier, to the head of the Lötschen valley. There they added two local chamois hunters, Alois Volken and Joseph Bortis, to their party and traversed the Lötschenlücke before reaching the Aletschfirn (the west branch of the Aletsch Glacier), where they established the base camp, north of the Aletschhorn. After the Guttannen porter was sent back alone over the Lötschenlücke, the party finally reached the summit of the Jungfrau by the Rottalsattel on August 3. They then recrossed the two passes named to their point of departure in Valais, and went home again over the Grimsel.</p><br>
<p>The journey was a most extraordinary one for the time, and some persons threw doubts on its complete success. To settle these another expedition was undertaken in 1812. In this the two sons, Rudolf (1791–1833) and Gottlieb (1793–1829), of Johann Rudolf Meyer, played the chief parts. After an unsuccessful attempt, defeated by bad weather, in the course of which the Oberaarjoch was crossed twice (this route being much more direct than the long detour through the Lötschental), Rudolf, with the two Valais hunters (Alois Volker and Joseph Bortis), a Guttannen porter named Arnold Abbühl, and a Hasle man, bivouacked on a depression on the southeast ridge of the Finsteraarhorn. Next day (August 16) the whole party attempted the ascent of the Finsteraarhorn from the Studer névé on the east by way of the southeast ridge, but Meyer, exhausted, remained behind. The following day the party crossed the Grünhornlücke to the Aletsch Glacier, but bad weather then put an end to further projects. At a bivouac, probably just opposite the present Konkordia Hut, the rest of the party, having come over the Oberaarjoch and the Grünhornlücke, joined the Finsteraarhorn party. Gottlieb, Rudolf&#39;s younger brother, had more patience than the rest and remained longer at the huts near the Märjelensee, where the adventurers had taken refuge. He could make the second ascent (September 3) of the Jungfrau, the Rottalsattel being reached from the east side as is now usual, and his companions being the two Valais hunters.</p><br>
<p>The third ascent dates from 1828, when several men from Grindelwald, headed by Peter Baumann, planted their flag upon the summit. Next came the ascent by Louis Agassiz, James David Forbes, Heath, Desor, and Duchatelier in 1841, recounted by Desor in his Excursions et Séjours dans les Glaciers. Gottlieb Samuel Studer published an account of the next ascent made by himself and Bürki in 1842. In 1863, a party consisting of John Tyndall, J. J. Hornby, and T. H. Philpott, successfully reached the summit and returned to the base camp of the Faulberg (located near the actual position of the Konkordia Hut) in less than 11 hours. In the same year Mrs Stephen Winkworth became the first woman to climb the Jungfrau. She also slept overnight in the Faulberg cave prior to the ascent as there was no hut at that time.</p><br>
<p>Before the construction of the Jungfraujoch railway tunnel, the approach from the glaciers on the south side was very long. The first direct route from the valley of Lauterbrunnen was opened in 1865 by Geoffrey Winthrop Young, H. Brooke George with the guide Christian Almer. They had to carry ladders with them in order to cross the many crevasses on the north flank. Having spent the night on the rocks of the Schneehorn (3,402 m) they gained next morning the Silberlücke, the depression between the Jungfrau and Silberhorn, and thence in little more than three hours reached the summit. Descending to the Aletsch Glacier they crossed the Mönchsjoch, and passed a second night on the rocks, reaching Grindelwald next day. This route became a usual until the opening of the Jungfraujoch.</p><br>
<p>The first winter ascent was made on 23 January 1874, by Meta Brevoort and W. A. B. Coolidge with guides Christian and Ulrich Almer. They used a sled to reach the upper Aletsch Glacier, and were accompanied by Miss Brevoort&#39;s favorite dog, Tschingel.</p><br>
<p>The Jungfrau was climbed via the west side for the first time in 1885 by Fritz and Heinrich von Allmen, Ulrich Brunner, Fritz Graf, Karl Schlunegger and Johann Stäger—all from Wengen. They ascended the Rottal ridge (Innere Rottalgrat) and reached the summit on 21 September. The more difficult and dangerous northeast ridge that connects the summit from the Jungfraujoch was first climbed on 30 July 1911 by Albert Weber and Hans Schlunegger.</p><br>
<p>In July 2007 six Swiss Army recruits, part of the Mountain Specialists Division 1, died in an accident on the normal route. Although the causes of the deaths was not immediately clear, a report by the Swiss Federal Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research concluded that the avalanche risk was unusually high due to recent snowfall, and that there was "no other reasonable explanation" other than an avalanche for the incident.</p><br>
<h2>Ascent by James Phillpotts in 1863</h2><br>
<p>In July 1863 James Surtees Phillpotts, a young graduate later to become Headmaster of Bedford School, climbed the Jungfrau together with his friends Chaytor and Robertson. It seems probable that the “T.H. Philpott” referred to in John Ball’s 1869 guidebook (see above) was in fact James Phillpotts. The trio had three guides, Peter Baumann, Herr Kaufmann and Herr Rubi, and slept in the Faulberg cave during the nights before and after the ascent. Their expedition is described in a letter dated Sunday 26 July which James Phillpotts wrote to his friend and colleague Alexander Potts (subsequently Headmaster of Fettes College). The following extracts are from that letter.</p><br>
<p>The Virgin certainly did not smile on the poor "fools who rushed in" on her sacred heights, i.e. in plain British, we had the treadmill slog, the biting wind, the half frost-bitten feet and the flayed faces that generally attend an Alpine ascent.</p><br>
<p>We got to the Faulberg hole about dark, and enjoyed the coffee the longman (Kauffmann) made, as one would in a hole in a rock in a cold evening. The "Faulberg Nachtlager" consists of two holes and a vestibule to the upper hole. The Upper Hole in which we lodged just contained Chay, the Guv and myself, stretched at full length on a little hay over a hard rock mattress, convex instead of concave at the point where one likes to rest ones weight. Chaytor was in the middle, and as we were very close was warm and slept. The Guv and I courted Natures soft nurse in vain. At two we got up and methodically put our feet into the stocks, i.e. our boots, breakfasted and shivered, then started (unwashed of course, as the cold gave us malignant hydrophobia) a little after 3:30.</p><br>
<p>The hole was about 150 feet up one of the loose stone cliffs one now knows so well. So we groped our way down it and over the moraine - the stars still lingering, as day was just dawning. We could not start at 1:30, the proper time, as there was no moon and we wanted light as we had to tramp the glacier at once. Rubi led, and off we went, roped and in Indian file, in the old treadmill way over the slippery ploughed-field-like snow that lay on the upper glacier, for a pull without a check of one or two hours.</p><br>
<p>At last we came to the region of bergschrunds and crevasses. They seemed to form at first an impassable labyrinth, but gradually the guides wound in and out between the large rifts, which were exquisitely lovely with their overhanging banks of snow and glittering icicles, and then trod as on pins and needles over a snowbridge here and there, or had to take a jump over the more feasible ones - and we found ourselves at the foot of the mountain; trudged up on the snow which ought to have been crisp but was even then more or less fresh fallen and sloppy; had to creep over about three crevasses, and after a tiresome pull, dragging one leg after another out of ankle or knee deep snow, we got on a crest of snow at right angles to the slope we had just come up. That slope with its crevasses on one side, and on the other a shorter and much steeper one which led in a few steps to a precipice.</p><br>
<p>All along this crest went a snakelike long crevasse, for which we had continually to sound, and go first one side and then the other; then we got to the foot of the saddle. Some twenty or thirty steps, some cut, some uncut, soon took us up a kind of hollow, and we got on a little sloping plateau of some six feet large, where we left the grub and the knapsack, keeping my small flask of cognac only. Then up a steep ice slope, very steep I should say, down which the bits of ice cut out of the steps hopped and jumped at full gallop and then bounded over to some bottomless place which we could not see down. Their pace gave one an unpleasant idea of the possible consequence of a slip.</p><br>
<p>Here we encountered a biting bitter wind. Peter Baumann cut magnificent steps, at least he and Rubi did between them, the one improving on the other&#39;s first rough blows. After Rubi came Chaytor with Kauffmann behind him, then the Guv, and then myself, the tail of the string. Each step was a long lift from the last one, and as the snow was shallow they had to be cut in the ice which was like rock on this last slope.</p><br>
<p>Suddenly there burst upon us, on lifting our heads over the ridge, the green and cheerful valleys of Lauterbrunnen and Interlaken, of Grindelwald and a distant view of others equally beautiful stretching on for ever in one vast panorama. On the other side in grim contrast there was a wild and even aweful scene. One gazed about one and tried in vain to see to the bottom of dark yawning abysses and sheer cliffs of ice or rock.</p><br>
<h2>Jungfraujoch and tourism</h2><br>
<p>While the mountain peak was once difficult to access, the Jungfraubahn cog railway now goes to the Jungfrau railway station at 3,454 m, the highest in Europe. The Jungfraujoch is the lowest pass between the Jungfrau and Mönch.</p><br>
<p>In 1893 Adolf Guyer-Zeller conceived of the idea for a railway tunnel to the Jungfraujoch to make the glaciated areas on the south more accessible. The building of the tunnel took 16 years and the summit station was not opened before 1912. The goal was in fact to reach the summit of the Jungfrau with an elevator from the highest railway station inside the mountain. The complete project was not realized because of the outbreak of the World War I.</p><br>
<p>The train into the mountain leaves from Kleine Scheidegg, which can be reached by trains from Grindelwald and Lauterbrunnen via Wengen. The train enters the tunnel running eastward through the Eiger shortly above Kleine Scheidegg. Before arriving at the Jungfraujoch, it stops for a few minutes at two other stations, Eigerwand (on the north face of the Eiger) and Eismeer (on the south side), where passengers can see through the holes excavated from the mountain. The journey from Kleine Scheidegg to Jungfraujoch takes approximately 50 minutes including the stops; the downhill return journey taking only 35 minutes.</p><br>
<p>A large complex of tunnels and buildings has been constructed at the Jungfraujoch, mostly into the south side of the Mönch. There is a hotel, two restaurants, an observatory, a research station, a small cinema, a ski school, and the "Ice Palace", a collection of elaborate ice sculptures. Another tunnel leads outside to a flat, snow-covered area, where one can walk around and look down to the Konkordiaplatz and the Aletsch Glacier, as well as the surrounding mountains.</p><br>
<p>Apart from the Jungfraujoch, many facilities have been built in the two valleys north of the Jungfrau (the commonly named Jungfrau Region). In 1908, the first public cable car in the world opened at the foot of the Wetterhorn, but was closed seven years later. The Schilthorn above Mürren or the Männlichen above Wengen offer good views of the Jungfrau and other summits.</p><br>
<h2>Climbing routes</h2><br>
<p>The normal route follows the traces of the first climbers, but the long approach on the Aletsch Glacier is no longer necessary. From the area of the Jungfraujoch the route to the summit takes only a few hours. Most climbers start from the Mönchsjoch Hut. After a traverse of the Jungfraufirn the route heads to the Rottalsattel (3,885 m), from where the southern ridge leads to the Jungfrau. It is not considered a very difficult climb but it can be dangerous on the upper section above the Rottalsattel, where most of the accidents happen. The use of the Jungfrau railway can cause some acclimatization troubles as the difference of altitude between the railway stations of Interlaken and Jungfraujoch is almost 3 km.</p><br>
<p>The final section of the climb is accomplished along one of the longest and sharpest arêtes of frozen snow to be found in the Alps, beyond which the eye plunges abruptly down a precipice 3,000 ft. in height into the depths of the Rottal, on the west of the Jungfrau. With perfect steadiness and first-rate guides there is no danger, unless too early in the season, or soon after a heavy fall of fresh snow. When it is necessary to cut steps all the way in hard frozen névé, the work is very laborious, and 3 hours may be consumed in ascending the 725 ft that separate the Sattel from the summit. Some rocks jut out close to the top, but the actual peak consists of a nearly level ridge of frozen snow falling away on either side like a house-top with an excessively steep roof. The view, on one side, commands the icy plains of the Aletsch Glacier, and the highest alpine peaks far and near; on the other overlooks populous valleys that lie at a depth of 2 miles below the spectator&#39;s feet.</p><br>
<h2>Representations in art</h2><br>
<p>Jungfrau, chromolithograph, by Helga von Cramm, with prayer by F.R. Havergal, (4.5 x 5.75 inches).jpgJungfrau, c. 1880, by Helga von Cramm, chromolithograph, with prayer by F.R. Havergal.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Colonial era</h3><br>
<p>The original population of the 16th century New York Harbor, the Lenape, used the waterways for fishing and travel. In 1524 Giovanni da Verrazzano anchored in what is now called The Narrows, the strait between Staten Island and Long Island that connects the Upper and Lower New York Bay, where he received a canoe party of Lenape. A party of his sailors may have taken on fresh water at a spring called "the watering place" on Staten Island—a monument stands in a tiny park on the corner of Bay Street and Victory Boulevard at the approximate spot—but Verrazzano&#39;s descriptions of the geography of the area are a bit ambiguous. It is fairly firmly held by historians that his ship anchored at the approximate location where the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge touches down in Brooklyn today. He also observed what he believed to be a large freshwater lake to the north (apparently Upper New York Bay). He apparently did not travel north to observe the existence of the Hudson River. In 1609 Henry Hudson entered the Harbor and explored a stretch of the river that now bears his name. His journey prompted others to explore the region and engage in trade with the local population.</p><br>
<p>In 1624 the first permanent European settlement was started on Governors Island, and eight years later in Brooklyn; soon these were connected by ferry operation.</p><br>
<p>The colonial Dutch Director-General of New Netherland, Peter Stuyvesant, ordered construction of the first wharf on the Manhattan bank of the lower East River sheltered from winds and ice, which was completed late in 1648 and called Schreyers Hook Dock (near what is now Pearl and Broad Streets). This prepared New York as a leading port for the British colonies and then within the newly independent United States.</p><br>
<p>In 1686, the British colonial officials gave the municipality control over the waterfront.</p><br>
<h3>19th century</h3><br>
<p>In 1808, Lieutenant Thomas Gedney of the United States Coast Survey discovered a new, deeper channel through The Narrows into New York Harbor. Previously, the passage was complex and shallow enough that loaded ships would wait outside the harbor until high tide, to avoid running into the huge sandbar, which was interrupted in a number of places by channels of fairly shallow depth: 21 feet at low tide and 33 feet at high tide. Because of the difficulty of the navigation required, since 1694, New York had required all ships to be guided into the harbor by an experienced pilot. The new channel Gedney discovered was 2 feet deeper, enough of an added margin that fully laden ships could come into the harbor even at slack tide. Gedney&#39;s Channel, as it came to be called, was also shorter than the previous channel, another benefit appreciated by the ship owners and the merchants they sold to. Gedney received the praise of the city, as well as an expensive silver service.</p><br>
<p>In 1824 the first American drydock was completed on the East River. Because of its location and depth, the Port grew rapidly with the introduction of steamships; and then with the completion in 1825 of the Erie Canal New York became the most important transshipping port between the American interior and Europe as well as coastwise destinations. By about 1840, more passengers and a greater tonnage of cargo came through the port of New York than all other major harbors in the country combined and by 1900 it was one of the great international ports. The Morris Canal, carrying anthracite and freight from Pennsylvania through New Jersey to its terminus at the mouth of the Hudson in Jersey City. Portions in the harbor are now part of Liberty State Park.</p><br>
<p>In 1870, the city established the Department of Docks to systematize waterfront development, with George B. McClellan as the first engineer in chief. By the turn of the 20th century numerous railroad terminals lined the western banks of the North River (Hudson River) in Hudson County, transporting passengers as well as freight from all over the United States. The freight was ferried across by the competing railroads with small fleets of towboats, barges, and 323 car floats, specially designed barges with rails so cars could be rolled on. New York subsidized this service which undercut rival ports. Major road improvements allowing for trucking and containerization diminished the need.</p><br>
<p>The Statue of Liberty (Liberty Enlightening the World) stand on Liberty Island in the harbor, and the Statue of Liberty National Monument recalls the period of massive immigration to the United States at the turn of the 20th century. The main port of entry at Ellis Island processed 12 million arrivals from 1892 to 1954. While many stayed in the region, others spread across America, with more than 10 million leaving from the nearby Central Railroad of New Jersey Terminal.</p><br>
<h3>20th century</h3><br>
<h4>World War II</h4><br>
<p>After the United States entered World War II, the German navy&#39;s Operation Drumbeat set the top U-boat aces loose against the merchant fleet in USA territorial waters in January 1942, starting the Second happy time. The U-boat captains were able to silhouette target ships against the glow of city lights, and attacked with relative impunity, in spite of USA naval concentrations within the Harbor. Casualties included the tankers Coimbria off Sandy Hook and Norness off Long Island. New York Harbor, as the major convoy embarkation point for the USA, was effectively a staging area in the Battle of the Atlantic, with the USA Merchant Marine losses of 1 of 26 exceeding those of the other USA forces.</p><br>
<p>Bright city lights made it easier for German U-boats to spot targets at night, but local officials resisted suggestions that they follow London&#39;s lead and blackout the lights of coastal cities. However, some lights were darkened, including those of the amusement parks in Coney Island, Brooklyn, and the Coney Island Light, and Sandy Hook Lighthouse.</p><br>
<p>The Harbor reached its peak activity in March 1943, during World War II, with 543 ships at anchor, awaiting assignment to convoy or berthing (with as many as 426 seagoing vessel already at one of the 750 piers or docks). Eleven hundred warehouses with nearly 1.5 square miles of enclosed space served freight along with 575 tugboats and 39 active shipyards (perhaps most importantly New York Naval Shipyard founded 1801). With a staggering inventory of heavy equipment, this made New York Harbor the busiest in the world.</p><br>
<h3>Post-World War II</h3><br>
<p>Deterrence and investigation of criminal activity, especially relating to organized crime, is also the responsibility of the bi-state Waterfront Commission. The Commission was set up in 1953 (a year before the movie On the Waterfront), to combat labor racketeering. It is held that the Gambino crime family controlled the New York waterfront and the Genovese crime family controlled the New Jersey side. In 1984 the Teamsters local was put under Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO) trusteeship, and in 2005 a similar suit was brought against the International Longshoremen&#39;s Association local.</p><br>
<p>In March 2006, the Port passenger facility was to be transferred to Dubai Ports World. There was considerable security controversy over the ownership by a foreign corporation, particularly Arabic, of a USA port operation, this in spite of the fact the current operator was the British-based P&O Ports, and the fact that Orient Overseas Investment Limited, a company dominated by a Chinese Communist official, has the operating contract for Howland Hook Marine Terminal. An additional concern is the USA Customs "green lane" program, in which trusted shippers have fewer containers inspected, providing easier access for contraband material.</p><br>
<h2>Container shipping and air travel</h2><br>
<p>The Port of New York and New Jersey is the largest oil importing port and third largest container port in the nation. The commercial activity of the port of New York City, including the waterfronts of the five boroughs and nearby cities in New Jersey, since 1921 has been formalized under a single bi-state Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. Since the 1950s, the New York and Brooklyn commercial port has been almost completely eclipsed by the container ship facility at nearby Port Newark-Elizabeth Marine Terminal in Newark Bay, which is the largest such port on the Eastern Seaboard. The port has diminished in importance to passenger travel, but the Port Authority operates all three major airports in New York (La Guardia, 1939 and JFK/Idlewild, 1948) and Newark (1928).</p><br>
<h2>Ferries and cruise ships</h2><br>
<p>The harbor is still serviced by several cruise lines, commuter ferries, and tourist excursion boats. Although most ferry service is private, the Staten Island Ferry is operated by the New York City Department of Transportation. Passenger ship facilities are New York Passenger Ship Terminal, the Brooklyn Cruise Terminal at Red Hook, and MOTBY at Bayonne.</p><br>
<p>New York City Hall, the seat of New York City government, is located at the center of City Hall Park in the Civic Center area of Lower Manhattan, between Broadway, Park Row, and Chambers Street. The building is the oldest city hall in the United States that still houses its original governmental functions, such as the office of the Mayor of New York City and the chambers of the New York City Council. While the Mayor&#39;s Office is in the building, the staff of thirteen municipal agencies under mayoral control are located in the nearby Manhattan Municipal Building, one of the largest government buildings in the world.</p><br>
<p>Constructed from 1803 to 1812, Both its exterior (1966) and interior (1976) are designated New York City landmarks.</p><br>
<h2>History and description</h2><br>
<p>New Amsterdams first City Hall was built by the Dutch in the 17th century near 73 Pearl Street. The citys second City Hall, built in 1700, stood on Wall and Nassau Streets. That building was renamed Federal Hall after New York became the first official capital of the United States after the Revolutionary War. Plans for building a new City Hall were discussed by the New York City Council as early as 1776, but the financial strains of the war delayed progress. The Council chose a site at the old Common at the northern limits of the City, now City Hall Park. City Hall was originally an area for the first almhouse in 1653. In 1736, there was a financed almhouse for those who were fit to work, for the unfit, and those that were like criminals but were paupers.</p><br>
<p>In 1802 the City held a competition for a new City Hall. The first prize of $350 was awarded to Joseph-François Mangin and John McComb, Jr. Mangin, who was the principal designer, studied architecture in his native France before becoming a New York City surveyor in 1795 and publishing an official map of the city in 1803. Mangin was also the architect of the landmark St. Patrick&#39;s Old Cathedral on Mulberry Street. McComb, whose father had worked on the old City Hall, was a New Yorker and designed Castle Clinton in Battery Park. He would supervise the construction of the building, and designed the architectural detailing as well. Also, many architects were in favor of Greek Revival style and created Brooklyn City Hall, which is now called Brooklyn Borough Hall in 1848.</p><br>
<p>The cornerstone of the new City Hall was laid in 1803. Construction was delayed after the City Council objected that the design was too extravagant. In response, McComb and Mangin reduced the size of the building and used brownstone at the rear of the building to lower costs; the brownstone, along with the original deteriorated Massachusetts marble facade, quarried from Alford, Massachusetts, was replaced with Alabama limestone in 1954 to 1956. Labor disputes and an outbreak of yellow fever further slowed construction. The building was not dedicated until 1811, and opened officially in 1812.</p><br>
<p>The buildings Governors Room hosted President-elect Abraham Lincoln in 1861, and his coffin was placed on the staircase landing across the rotunda when he lay in state in 1865 after his assassination. Ulysses S. Grant also lay in state beneath the soaring rotunda dome as did Colonel Elmer Ephraim Ellsworth, first Union officer killed in the Civil War and commander of the 11th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment (First Fire Zouaves). The Governors Room, which is used for official receptions, also houses one of the most important collections of 19th century American portraiture and notable artifacts such as George Washingtons desk.</p><br>
<p>The Outer Room is adjacent to the traditional Mayor&#39;s office, which is a small space on the northwest corner of the first floor. The Ceremonial Room is where the mayor would meet officials and hold small group meetings.</p><br>
<p>There are 108 paintings from the late 18th century through the 20th. The New York Times declared it "almost unrivaled as an ensemble, with several masterpieces." Among the collection is John Trumbull’s 1805 portrait of Alexander Hamilton, the source of the face on the United States ten-dollar bill. There were significant efforts to restore the paintings in the 1920s and 1940s. In 2006 a new restoration campaign began for 47 paintings identified by the Art Commission as highest in priority.</p><br>
<p>On July 23, 2003 at 2:08 p.m., City Hall was the scene of a rare political assassination. Othniel Askew, a political rival of City Councilman James E. Davis, opened fire with a pistol from the balcony of the City Council chamber. Askew shot Davis twice, fatally wounding him. A police officer on the floor of the chamber then fatally shot Askew. Askew and Davis had entered the building together without passing through a metal detector, a courtesy extended to elected officials and their guests. As a result of the security breach, then-Mayor Michael Bloomberg revised security policy to require that everyone entering the building pass through metal detectors without exception.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>Although Mangin and McComb designed the building, which was constructed between 1810 and 1812, it has been altered numerous times over the years, with the alteration often designed by noted architects:</p><br>
<p>1860: Leopold Eidlitz</p><br>
<p>1898: John H. Duncan</p><br>
<p>1903: William Martin Aiken</p><br>
<p>1907, 1912, 1915, 1917: Grosvenor Atterbury</p><br>
<p>1956: Shreve, Lamb & Harmon</p><br>
<p>1998: Cabrera Barricklo</p><br>
<p>The architectural style of City Hall combines two noted historical movements, French Renaissance, which can be seen in the design of the exterior, and American-Georgian in the interior design. The building consists of a central pavilion with two projecting wings. The design of City Hall influenced at least two later civic structures, the Tweed Courthouse and the Surrogate&#39;s Courthouse. The entrance, reached by a long flight of steps, has figured prominently in civic events for over a century and a half. There is a columned entrance portico capped by a balustrade, and another balustrade at the roof. The domed tower in the center was rebuilt in 1917 after the last of two major fires. The original deteriorated Massachusetts marble facade, quarried from Alford, Massachusetts, with brownstone on the rear, was completely reclad with Alabama limestone above a Missouri granite base in 1954-6.</p><br>
<p>On the inside, the rotunda is a soaring space with a grand marble stairway rising up to the second floor, where ten fluted Corinthian columns support the coffered dome, which was added in a 1912 restoration by Grosvenor Atterbury. The rotunda has been the site of municipal as well as national events. Abraham Lincoln and Ulysses S. Grant lay in state here, attracting enormous crowds to pay their respects. City Hall is a designated New York City landmark. It is also listed on the New York State and National Registers of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h3>Functions</h3><br>
<p>Official receptions are held in the Governor&#39;s Room, which has hosted many dignitaries including the Marquis de Lafayette and Albert Einstein.</p><br>
<p>The historic Blue Room is where New York City mayors have been giving official press conferences for decades and is often used for bill-signing ceremonies.</p><br>
<p>Room 9 is the press room at City Hall where reporters file stories in cramped quarters.</p><br>
<p>The steps of City Hall frequently provide a backdrop for political demonstrations and press conferences concerning city politics. Live, unedited coverage of events at City Hall is carried on NYCTV channel 74, a City Government-access television (GATV) official cable TV channel.</p><br>
<p>Fencing surrounds the building&#39;s perimeter, with a strong security presence by the New York City Police Department. Public access to the building is restricted to tours and to those with specific business appointments.</p><br>
<h2>Surroundings</h2><br>
<h3>Neighborhood</h3><br>
<p>The area around City Hall is commonly referred to as the Civic Center. Most of the neighborhood consists of government offices (city, state and federal), as well as an increasing number of upscale residential dwellings being converted from older commercial structures. Architectural landmarks such as St. Pauls Chapel, St. Peters Church, the Woolworth Building, Tweed Courthouse, the Manhattan Municipal Building, the Park Row Building, One Police Plaza, and the Brooklyn Bridge surround City Hall. City Hall Park is approximately three blocks away from the World Trade Center site. Pace Universitys New York City campus is located across Park Row from City Hall.</p><br>
<h3>Subway stations</h3><br>
<p>Located directly under City Hall Park is City Hall subway station, the original southern terminal of the first service of the New York City Subway built by the Interborough Rapid Transit Company (IRT). Opened on October 27, 1904, this station beneath the public area in front of City Hall was designed to be the showpiece of the new subway. Considered to be one of the most beautiful subway stations in the system, the station is unusually elegant in architectural style. The platform and mezzanine feature Guastavino tile, skylights, colored glass tile work and brass chandeliers. Passenger service was discontinued on December 31, 1945, although the station is still used as a turning loop for.</p><br>
<p>Another station named City Hall also exists on the BMT Broadway Line, albeit on the western side of City Hall and not directly under it. This station was built in 1912 for the Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation (BMT).</p><br>
<p>Other nearby, open subway stations are Brooklyn Bridge – City Hall / Chambers Street and Chambers Street – World Trade Center / Park Place.</p><br>
<h3>Renovations</h3><br>
<p>In 2008, work began on a restoration of the building, after a century without a major renovation. The construction included structural enhancements, upgrades to building services, as well as in-depth restoration of much of the interior and exterior. Due to the complexity of the demands of the project, the New York City Department of Design and Construction hired Hill International to provide construction management. Renovations were originally estimated to cost $104 million and take four years, but ended up costing nearly $150 million and taking over five years.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>New York City Hall has played a central role in several films and television series.</p><br>
<p>Spin City (1996–2002), set in City Hall, starred Michael J. Fox as a Deputy Mayor making efforts to stop the dim-witted Mayor from embarrassing himself in front of the media and voters.</p><br>
<p>City Hall (1996) starred Al Pacino as an idealistic Mayor and John Cusack as his Deputy Mayor, who leads an investigation with unexpectedly far-reaching consequences into an accidental shooting.</p><br>
<p>In the 1984 movie Ghostbusters the Mayor summons the protagonists to City Hall to discuss the impending end of the world.</p><br>
<p>City Hall is also referred to in the folk song "The Irish Rover" as performed by The Clancy Brothers, The Pogues and The Dubliners:</p><br>
<p>In the year of our Lord, eighteen hundred and six,</p><br>
<p>We set sail from the Coal Quay of Cork</p><br>
<p>We were sailing away with a cargo of bricks</p><br>
<p>For the grand City Hall in New York</p><br>
<p>In the 2016 movie Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them, part of J. K. Rowlings Wizarding World, Senator Henry Shaw (played by Josh Cowdery) holds a fundraising dinner at City Hall for his re-election; this dinner is later disrupted by a magical force that attacks him while he is delivering a speech. St Georges Hall, in Liverpool, stands-in for the City Hall in both interior and exterior scenes.</p><br>
<p>The Gulf of Aqaba  or Gulf of Eilat  is a large gulf at the northern tip of the Red Sea, east of the Sinai Peninsula and west of the Arabian mainland. Its coastline is divided between four countries: Egypt, Israel, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The gulf is east of the Sinai Peninsula and west of the Arabian Peninsula. With the Gulf of Suez to the west, it extends from the northern portion of the Red Sea. It reaches a maximum depth of 1,850 m in its central area: the Gulf of Suez is significantly wider but less than 100 m deep.</p><br>
<p>The gulf measures 24 km at its widest point and stretches some 160 km north from the Straits of Tiran to where Israel meets Egypt and Jordan.</p><br>
<p>Like the coastal waters of the Red Sea, the gulf is one of the world&#39;s premier sites for diving. The area is especially rich in coral and other marine biodiversity and has accidental shipwrecks and vessels deliberately sunk in an effort to provide a habitat for marine organisms and bolster the local dive tourism industry.</p><br>
<h3>Cities</h3><br>
<p>At this northern end of the gulf are three important cities: Taba in Egypt, Eilat in Israel, and Aqaba in Jordan. They are strategically important commercial ports and popular resorts for tourists seeking to enjoy the warm climate. Further south, Haql is the largest Saudi Arabian city on the gulf. On Sinai, Sharm el-Sheikh and Dahab are the major centers.</p><br>
<p>The largest population center is Aqaba, with a population of 108,000 (2009), followed by Eilat with a population of 48,000 (2009).</p><br>
<h3>Extent</h3><br>
<p>The International Hydrographic Organization defines the southern limit of the gulf as "A line running from Ràs al Fasma Southwesterly to Requin Island (27&deg;57&prime;N latitude, 34&deg;36&prime;E longitude) through Tiran Island to the Southwest point thereof and thence Westward on a parallel (27°54&#39;N) to the coast of the Sinaï Peninsula".</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The gulf is one of two gulfs created by the Sinai Peninsula&#39;s bifurcation of the northern Red Sea, the Gulf of Suez lying to the west of the peninsula and the Gulf of Aqaba to its east. Geologically, the gulf forms the southern end of the Dead Sea Transform. It contains three small pull-apart basins, the Elat Deep, Aragonese Deep and Dakar Deep, formed between four left lateral strike-slip fault segments. Movement on one of these faults caused the 1995 Gulf of Aqaba earthquake.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Trade across the Red Sea between Thebes port of Elim and Elat at the head of the gulf is documented as early as the Fourth Dynasty of Egypt. Expeditions crossing the Red Sea and heading south to Punt are mentioned in the fifth, the sixth, the eleventh, the twelfth and the eighteenth dynasties of Egypt, when Hatshepsut built a fleet to support the trade and journeyed south to Punt in a six-month voyage.</p><br>
<p>Thebes used Nubian gold or Nub from her conquests south into Kush to facilitate the purchase of frankincense, myrrh, bitumen, natron, juniper oil, linen, and copper amulets for the mummification industry at Karnak. Egyptian settlements near Timna at the head of the gulf date to the Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt.</p><br>
<p>At the northern edge, the ancient city of Ayla (in present-day Aqaba) was a commercial hub for the Nabateans. The Romans built the Via Traiana Nova, which joined the King&#39;s Highway at Aqaba and connected Africa to Asia and the Levant and Red Sea shipping.</p><br>
<p>Aqaba was a major Ottoman port, connected to Damascus and Medina by the Hejaz railway. During World War I, the Battle of Aqaba was the key battle that ended a 500-year Ottoman rule over Greater Syria.</p><br>
<p>The Marine Twilight Zone Research and Exploration program (MTRX) was set up in 2003 by the Interuniversity Institute for Marine Sciences of Eilat to conduct research on the deep coral reef systems of the northern Red Sea.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>The gulf is one of the most popular diving destinations in the world. About 250,000 dives are performed annually in Eilat&#39;s 11 km coastline, and diving represents 10% of the tourism income of this area.</p><br>
<p>The Landscape of Wadi Rum to the east of the northern edge of the gulf is a popular destination. Other destinations are the ruins of the iron-age civilization of Ayla in the city of Aqaba, the site of the World War I Battle of Aqaba, led by Lawrence of Arabia.</p><br>
<p>Whales, orcas, dolphins, dugongs, and whale sharks live in the gulf as well.</p><br>
<p>The Richelieu River rises at Lake Champlain, from which it flows to the north in the province of Quebec, Canada and empties into the St. Lawrence river. It was formerly known as the Iroquois River and the Chambly River. This river was a key route of water transport for cross-border trade between Canada and the United States, until the arrival of the railway in the mid-19th century.</p><br>
<p>Because of its strategic position between New France and New England, several military fortifications were erected on the course of the river. It served as a key pathway for several military tours and was the scene of several battles between the end of the 17th and early 19th centuries, first between the French and the Iroquois, then between the French and the English, during the regime of the New France and finally between the English and the Americans after 1760.</p><br>
<h2>Geography and hydrography</h2><br>
<p>The Richelieu River has a drainage basin of 23,720 km&sup2; - including those of Lake Champlain 19,925 km&sup2; and Missisquoi Bay (1,289 km&sup2;). Of this, 19,600 km&sup2; are in the United States, originating in the western slopes of the Green Mountains and the eastern slopes of the Adirondack Mountains of New York State. The Champlain Valley makes up most of the drainage basin.</p><br>
<p>With a length of 124 km, the Richelieu River takes its source at the north end of Lake Champlain on the border between Canada (Quebec) and the United States (Vermont and New York state). The river flows through many towns: Lacolle, Île aux Noix, Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu, Chambly, Beloeil, Saint-Charles-sur-Richelieu, Saint-Denis-sur-Richelieu, Saint-Ours and Sorel-Tracy where the river empties into the Saint Lawrence River, around 40 km northeast of Montreal and southwest of Quebec City.</p><br>
<p>The Richelieu River is the largest tributary of the south shore of the Saint Lawrence River and drains a large area of southern Quebec. The Quebec portion of the watershed (about 15% of its total area) includes 18 lakes and ponds, as well as forty rivers and tributary streams of the Richelieu. The main Richelieu tributaries are rivers: Acadia, South Huron and Lacolle. The river&#39;s mean discharge is 330 m3/s.</p><br>
<p>Nearly 340,000 people across eight Regional county municipalities (RCM in English or MRC in French) and 65 municipalities, live in the Quebec portion of the watershed of the river. The population density (140 inhabitants per km) is very high compared to that of most other regions of the province of Quebec. Just over 70% of this area is used for agricultural purposes.</p><br>
<p>With the opening of the Chambly Canal in 1843, navigation became possible on the Richelieu between the Saint Lawrence River and Lake Champlain. At the southern end of the lake, the Champlain Canal (opened in 1823) allows for navigation to the Hudson River and, downstream, the city of New York, where the river flows into the Atlantic Ocean.</p><br>
<p>Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu, Chambly, Beloeil, Mont-Saint-Hilaire, and Sorel-Tracy are important communities on its route.</p><br>
<h3>River course and hydrology</h3><br>
<p>The average slope of the Richelieu River is 0.19 m/km, but 24 m in elevation between Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu and Chambly for an average flow of 330 m3/second.</p><br>
<p>By convention, the Richelieu is generally divided into three main sections:</p><br>
<p>The Haut-Richelieu (upper Richelieu, between Lake Champlain and Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu). It is characterized by a very low drop (0.3 m over 35 km). With a width of about 1.5 km at its southern end, it becomes increasingly narrow (width of about 250 m in its most narrow areas). It passes through the city of Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu, which now includes Iberville and Saint-Luc (merged in 2001).</p><br>
<p>The Chambly Canal (of Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu to Chambly). Due to its significant drop in this area - 25 m over 12 km - the river has many rapids. The channel consists of nine locks and a length of nearly 19 km, allowing boats to navigate past the rapids. In Chambly, the river widens and forms the Chambly Basin, a popular area for nautical activities.</p><br>
<p>The Bas-Richelieu (lower Richelieu, between Chambly and the Saint Lawrence River). In this section, the river passes the cities of Otterburn Park, Beloeil, Mont-Saint-Hilaire and municipalities McMasterville, Saint-Charles-sur-Richelieu and Saint-Denis-sur-Richelieu. In Saint-Ours, the river is again characterized by a sudden drop before emptying into the Saint Lawrence River at Sorel-Tracy, southwest of Lake Saint-Pierre.</p><br>
<p>Several river islands are along the route of the Richelieu River. Arguably the most famous, Île aux Noix is in the Haut-Richelieu and houses Fort Lennox, considered a national historic site of Canada. Downstream, the Sainte-Thérèse Island near Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu (in Saint-Luc&#39;s sector), is the largest island on the Richelieu (its length is about 4 km and a maximum width of 1 km). Formerly agricultural, it is now largely residential. It also previously housed the Fort Sainte Thérèse, built in 1665, but abandoned at the end of the 18th century and now disappeared.</p><br>
<p>The Richelieu is one of three rivers flowing from Quebec south to north, the other two being the Châteauguay and Chaudière. Ice jams can form in the spring with the melting of ice in the south while the north is still frozen, causing floods.</p><br>
<h3>Tributaries in Quebec part</h3><br>
<p>LAcadie River (Rivière lAcadie), 82 km Mouth: Carignan.</p><br>
<p>South River (Rivière Du Sud), 39.1 km. Mouth: Henryville.</p><br>
<p>Amyot River (Rivière Amyot), 11.7 km. Mouth: Saint-Charles-sur-Richelieu.</p><br>
<p>Lacolle River (Rivière Lacolle), 24 km. Mouth: Lacolle.</p><br>
<p>Huron River (Rivière Des Hurons), 33 km. Mouth: Saint-Mathias-sur-Richelieu.</p><br>
<p>Iroquois River (Rivière Des Iroquois), 10.1 km. Mouth: Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu.</p><br>
<p>Bernier River (Rivière Bernier), 12.9 km. Mouth: Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu.</p><br>
<p>Massé Stream (Ruisseau Massé). Mouth: Carignan.</p><br>
<p>Bernard Stream East (Ruisseau Bernard). Mouth: Otterburn Park.</p><br>
<p>Bernard Stream West (Ruisseau Bernard). Mouth: McMasterville.</p><br>
<p>North Stream (Ruisseau Nord) in (Saint-Mathieu-de-Beloeil)</p><br>
<p>South Stream (Ruisseau Sud) in (Saint-Mathieu-de-Beloeil)</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The valley of the Richelieu river is based on sedimentary rocks formed during the Cambrian of the Paleozoic era around 450 million years ago. The bedrock consists of shale clay and sandstone. The shales are sedimentary rocks from the mechanical disintegration of preexisting rocks. The sandstones are composed of quartz grains joined together and are always the result of deposition of shoreline.</p><br>
<p>The Utica shale usually contain an abundance of mica flakes and important content of quartz. The Utica shale is especially conducive to the shale gas exploitation. Those of Lorraine group are dark gray color, and contain also sandstone lenses up to 5 cm thick. These are the rocks of the Lorraine Group (sub-formation Breault) that cover most of the area. This group (sub-formation Chambly) contains the younger sedimentary rocks of the region: a series of shales and "calcaireuses" that turn red in the upper parts.</p><br>
<p>Historically, the formation of rocks in the region is due to its immersion, towards the end of the Ordovician geological era, which led to the establishment of marine sediments. Then raised by tectonic forces, the entire region has been subjected to a long erosion since the end of the Ordovician to the late Tertiary. Subsequently, after being covered with a thick layer of ice during the Quaternary, the lowlands of the St. Lawrence was overwhelmed by the Champlain Sea in the wake of the collapse of the foundation underlying therefore the weight of glaciers. After dropping clays and sands, the sea had to decline, following the recovery of the base, and left the area in its current state.</p><br>
<p>The valley has a few pronounced relief that is covered with a large clay deposit of up to 50 m thick. The lowlands were once part of plain of alluviums of St. Lawrence valley, greater than it is today. In a relatively recent geological time, glaciation changed the relief which subsequently was reduced by sediment deposits dating from the post-glacial of Champlain Sea. The most prominent of the watershed of the river geological formation is also formed by the Monteregian Hills. In addition, nearly half of the banks of the Richelieu River are kept in natural state.</p><br>
<p>Regarding the hydrogeology of the area, there are two major classes of surficial: permeable and little or no permeability. In the first case, we find sand and gravel formations for the establishment of wells that can theoretically power a community network or industry. In the second case, there are formation that permit at most the implementation of individual wells. A third category has been emerged, that of permeable surficial buried underlying impermeable horizon, which are often highly productive aquifers.</p><br>
<p>Permeable surficial sand and gravel together from various sources and represent 18 percent of the entire region.</p><br>
<p>The little furniture or not permeable deposits consist of unconsolidated sediments which occupy 62 percent of the area. It includes the compact clay or silty matrix till, glaciolacustrine sediments for the Champlain Sea clay, fine current and organic sediment floodplain sediments.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Native American occupation</p><br>
<p>Before the arrival of the French, the Richelieu River was visited by Iroquois, the Huron and Algonquin.</p><br>
<p>French explorers</p><br>
<p>In 1535, the French explorer Jacques Cartier discovered the mouth of Richelieu River, during his second voyage in New France (Canada). Samuel de Champlain and his team reached the mouth of the river in 1603. Champlain returned to the river in 1608 and in 1609, exploring upriver to modern-day Albany, New York.</p><br>
<p>Toponymy</p><br>
<p>The river was formerly named "Masoliantekw", which means "water where there is plenty of food" in Abenaki, called the "Iroquois river" at the beginning of the colony, some early journals and maps refer to the lower river as the Sorel River. Its French name comes from the name of Cardinal Richelieu (1585-1642), Minister of Louis XIII, as well as Fort Richelieu.</p><br>
<p>Five forts</p><br>
<p>Already an important pathway for the Iroquois, the Richelieu River soon became one for French traders as well. The French regime built five forts along its length: Fort Richelieu at its mouth, Fort St. Louis (or Fort Chambly) in Chambly, Fort Sainte Thérèse and Fort Saint-Jean upriver, and Fort Ste. Anne on the Isle La Motte, Vermont in Lake Champlain near its source.</p><br>
<p>In the 17th century, the repeated assaults of the Iroquois endangered the existence of the French colony of America. The first military posts, as Fort Richelieu in Sorel and the Fort Saint-Jean were built. The latter, built in 1666, led to the founding of the city of Saint-Jean, today Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu. In the 18th century, the region was a strategic location increasingly coveted by the French and British colonial empires. The two powers wish to expand their territory and control the fur trade. Between 1819 and 1829, the British built Fort Lennox on an island of the Richelieu River, near the Canada-USA border, to prevent against possible attacks from Americans after the War of 1812. The English and French built their fortified posts larger, such as Fort Lennox at Île aux Noix, Fort Sainte Thérèse and Fort St. Louis (or Fort Chambly).</p><br>
<p>These fortifications and the fertile lands of the river attracted farmers. It was at this time that the region of Haut-Richelieu got its nickname, the "Valley of the strongholds" (Vallée des forts).</p><br>
<p>After the period of the British conquest of New France in 1759–1760, and after the American War of Independence by the Thirteen Colonies (1776–1783), the British military and loyalist came to settle on the banks of the Richelieu. During the Lower Canada Rebellion of 1837, the battles of Saint-Denis and Saint-Charles occurred along the Richelieu.</p><br>
<p>Economy</p><br>
<p>During the 19th century, the Richelieu became an important economic thoroughfare instead of a path for war. In 1843, the construction of the Chambly Canal was completed, bypassing the rapids and allowing easier transportation of export products such as sawlogs, pulp, hay, and coal from Canada to the United States. Following the first channel, a network of channels was formed. These allowed those traversing the Richelieu to access the Hudson River and then New York. Sorel and Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu, which were both incorporated in the 1850s, arose as a direct result of the increased traffic on the Richelieu.</p><br>
<p>Railroad development</p><br>
<p>However, by the end of the 19th century railroads had largely replaced the river as commercial arteries. A tragic intersection of the two modes of transport occurred in 1864 when a train plunged off a swing bridge into the river after missing a red signal, killing 99 people.</p><br>
<p>Tourist industry</p><br>
<p>Tourists visit New York and Montreal through the river. Its contribution to regional prosperity is crucial and, in the middle of the century, Saint-Jean became the most important inner harbour of Quebec and Canada. The resort has largely replaced the business generated by the Richelieu which is considered a "heritage corridor".</p><br>
<p>The river, which crosses densely populated areas as well as several agricultural areas is ecologically challenged, especially in the Chambly Basin. Measures concerning wastewater treatment reduced the presence of certain pollutants in recent years.</p><br>
<p>The Richelieu River caused extensive flooding during Spring 2011, damaging or destroying more than 3,000 homes in Quebec and at least 750 in Vermont.</p><br>
<h2>Gallery of old images</h2><br>
<h2>Recreation</h2><br>
<p>Although its commercial significance has waned, the Richelieu has remained an important recreational waterway. The Chambly Canal (9 locks) permits pleasure boats to bypass the rapids at Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu and Chambly. The Champlain Canal and Lake Champlain form the USA portion of the Lakes to Locks Passage, linking with the Hudson River and allowing navigation using the Richelieu between the St. Lawrence River and New York City and the Erie Canal.</p><br>
<p>The is a 20 km bicycle path that follows the towpath along the canal. The bike path is part of Quebec&#39;s bicycle path network. The canal is a national historic site operated by Parks Canada. The agency also manages other national historic sites along the river: Fort Chambly, Fort Ste. Thérèse, and St. Ours Canal.</p><br>
<p>Given the rich historical past of the region, the Richelieu River brings in its banks and its islands several sites, some of which are owned by Parks Canada National Historic Site Canal Chambly National Historic Site the Fort Lennox, the Fort Saint-Jean. As for the national historic site of Fort Chambly, it receives every year thousands of visitors during the celebrated the first days of September. In addition, the curious visitor to learn more about the history of the region could go to, Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu.</p><br>
<p>Fishing</p><br>
<p>The Richelieu, which is home to more than 50 species of fish, offers excellent sport fishing opportunities. Important sport species include northern pike, longnose gar, bowfin, smallmouth bass, largemouth bass, carp, and black crappie. But the Richelieu also hosts several threatened or endangered species, such as the copper redhorse, river redhorse, and lake sturgeon, so fishing seasons and capture limits are regulated.</p><br>
<p>Since agricultural products Montérégie enjoy an enviable reputation, many restaurateurs settle near the Richelieu River to combine fine dining and picturesque landscape. True country of maple and apple cider and sugar shacks abound in the area.</p><br>
<h2>Hinterland</h2><br>
<p>In urban and agricultural areas, there are mainly small mammals such as skunks, raccoon, squirrel and marmots. Forest areas, which represent 16% of the land in the watershed, host a variety of wildlife: there are among others American mink, deer, beaver, frogs and several species of turtles including the softshell turtle, which is an endangered species.</p><br>
<p>But the wildlife species most frequently sighted are birds. Because the river flows in a north-south axis, it is a migration corridor and one can observe several migrating birds. A staging area is located near Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu, and depending on the time of year, birdswatchers can see various species of birds. For example, in the fall, visitors can see the arrival of thousands of geese and ducks. One can also see the loggerhead shrike (an endangered species), as well as the peregrine and golden eagle (classified as a vulnerable species), and cerulean warblers, to name but a few.</p><br>
<p>Regarding the flora, the catchment of the River belongs to the bioclimatic domain maple-hickory hickory. It includes among others sugar maple and silver maple of hickory hickory of bur oak and oak bicolor of American elms and black ash, and several bushes and herbaceous. Of these, several are considered vulnerable or endangered. This is the case of the aplectrelle winter (Aplectrum hyemale), the leek (Allium tricoccum) and Canada lily (Lilium canadense).</p><br>
<p>In the late 1990s, there was the presence of water chestnut at the mouth of the river. This invasive species threaten to stifle the fauna and flora, as it multiplies at lightning speed. The Ministry of Sustainable Development, Environment and Parks of Quebec struggle to get rid of, and indeed a breakout campaign began in 2001. Partners, such as has controlled the invasion of this plant in the harvesting.</p><br>
<h3>Fish</h3><br>
<p>The Richelieu River is home to more than fifty species of fish. Many of them are considered threatened or endangered as copper redhorse, river redhorse and sturgeon. One of the last spawning of copper redhorse (Moxostoma hubbsi), a species endemic in Quebec is also found in the river. Other species, such as goby, are exogenous. In fact, they come from an external medium and were accidentally introduced into the ecosystem, often water discharge ballast vessels that ply the St. Lawrence River. Considered harmful or invasive, they colonize the water, funds and compete with native species (local) and a threat to the integrity of the ecosystem river.</p><br>
<p>During the last decade, several methods have been implemented to protect endangered species. These projects include 2001, the fish ladder Vianney-Legendre which was built to help fish to pass the dam canal Saint-Ours. Named to honor the memory of Vianney-Legendre, renowned ichthyologist, the structure of an innovative nature has been designed to accommodate different species of fish, especially those threatened. This scale can even be used to raise awareness of the endangered species recovery. In 2002, the wildlife refuge Pierre-Étienne-Fortin (naturalist who first described the copper redhorse) was created to protect a breeding copper redhorse. Access to the refuge is prohibited during the breeding season which runs from late June to late July. Finally, every summer since 2006, as part of a patrol project established by the Committee for consultation and development of the basin of the River (COVABAR) sensitizing agents plying the river in order to inform boaters the precarious situation of the copper redhorse and remind them regulations and measures in place to protect her.</p><br>
<p>In addition, invasive species and increasing human presence are not only responsible for the fragility of some populations. According to a report from the Quebec Ministry of Sustainable Development, Environment and Parks (MDDEP) conducted in 1998, the presence of pollutants and toxic agents in the waters of the river is also a "stressful" for fish. In several places in the river, a disturbing proportion of fish (over 13%) had abnormalities, which would signal a "precarious state of health" of the community ichthyological. However, the significant presence of fish-eating fish and some vulnerable species such as banded killifish, brought MDDEP to maintain the integrity index fish "average" (except in the Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu, where he was considered "low"). Chub black chin, stonecat and lamprey East are also part of sentinel species in the watershed of the Richelieu River, like copper redhorse, whose presence is an indication of the quality of water and aquatic. The data presented in the 1998 report are still used as a reference in 2011.</p><br>
<p>The fragility of some ecosystems does not preclude the practice of sports and leisure activities. Some fish from the river can reach impressive and relevant to angling sizes. This activity is regulated, however: regular and sectoral restrictions and daily bag limits may apply between other sturgeons, the knights, millers and striped bass.</p><br>
<p>The Windward Islands are the southern, generally larger islands of the Lesser Antilles, within the West Indies. They lie south of the Leeward Islands, approximately between latitudes 12° and 16° N and longitudes 60° and 62° W. As a group they start from Dominica and reach southward to the north of Trinidad & Tobago and west of Barbados.</p><br>
<h2>Name and geography</h2><br>
<p>The Windward Islands are called such because they were more windward to sailing ships arriving to the New World than the Leeward Islands, given that the prevailing trade winds in the West Indies blow east to west. The trans-Atlantic currents and winds that provided the fastest route across the ocean brought these ships to the rough dividing line between the Windward and Leeward islands.</p><br>
<p>Dominica is the dividing line between the Windward and Leeward islands. Martinique and the islands to the south were designated "Windward Islands". Guadeloupe and islands to the north became known as the "Leeward Islands".</p><br>
<p>Vessels in the Atlantic slave trade departing from the British Gold Coast and Gulf of Guinea in Africa would first encounter the southeasternmost "Windward" islands of the Lesser Antilles in their west-northwesterly heading to final destinations in the Caribbean and North and Central America. The chain of Windward Islands forms a part of the easternmost boundary of the Caribbean Sea.</p><br>
<p>Most of the present "Windward Islands" were once colonial island territories of France, also known as the French Antilles.</p><br>
<h2>List of the Windward Islands</h2><br>
<p>The Windward Islands are as follows:</p><br>
<p>Dominica (formerly administered as part of the colonial Leeward Islands)</p><br>
<p>Martinique</p><br>
<p>Saint Lucia</p><br>
<p>Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</p><br>
<p>Grenada</p><br>
<p>The bicycle business of the Wright brothers, the Wright Cycle Company  successively occupied five different locations in Dayton, Ohio. Orville and Wilbur Wright began their bicycle repair, rental and sales business in 1892, while continuing to operate a print shop . In 1896 they began manufacturing and selling bicycles of their own design, the Van Cleve and St. Claire, named after their ancestors. They invented the self-oiling hub and the innovation of machining the crankarm and pedal on the left side of the bike with left-hand threads to prevent the pedal from coming unscrewed while cycling. The brick building at 22 South Williams St., where the Wrights worked from 1895 to 1897, is the only extant building on its original foundation and in its original location that housed a Wright bicycle shop. They ran their printing shop on the second-floor. The 22 South Williams Street building is part of Dayton Aviation Heritage National Historical Park and the National Aviation Heritage Area.</p><br>
<p>The Wrights used the profits from the Wright Cycle Company to finance their aviation experiments. In 1901 they fitted a third bicycle wheel horizontally above the front wheel of one of their St. Claire bicycles and used the apparatus as a test platform to study airfoil design. They built a six-foot wind tunnel on the second floor of their bicycle shop at 1127 West Third St., the last location of their bicycle business, and from October to December they conducted pioneering tests in the tunnel of over 200 shapes of scale-model wings.</p><br>
<p>In that same building they designed and constructed their gliders and first airplane, the Wright Flyer, which cost under $1,000 to build. The shop closed in 1909 and they started their aviation company. In 1937, with Orville&#39;s cooperation, the building at 1127 West Third St. was moved to Greenfield Village, Dearborn, Michigan by Henry Ford.</p><br>
<h2>Shop locations</h2><br>
<p>With the exception of the West Second Street location, which is located near the Schuster Center on the other side of the Miami River, all of the shops are located within about one block of each other.</p><br>
<p>1892—Wright Cycle Exchange at 1005 West Third Street.</p><br>
<p>1893 to 1894—Wright Cycle Exchange at 1034 West Third Street. The name later changed to Wright Cycle Co.</p><br>
<p>1895 to 1897—Wright Cycle Co. at two locations—the main store at 22 South Williams Street, and a branch store in downtown Dayton at 23 West Second Street. The branch Closed In 1896.</p><br>
<p>1897 to 1908—The Wright Cycle Co. at 1127 West Third Street.</p><br>
<p>Twyford Down is an area of chalk downland lying directly to the southeast of Winchester, Hampshire, England. It is situated near the South Downs National Park, next to St. Catherine&#39;s Hill. The down has been used as a settlement since pre-Roman times, and has hosted a fort and a chapel, as well as being a popular 17th and 18th century coaching route.</p><br>
<p>In 1991, the down became the site of a major road protest against the completion of a section of the M3 motorway from London to the south coast of England. There had been plans since the 1970s to replace an earlier 1930s-built bypass of Winchester, which became regularly congested due to design features that had become out of date. This became problematic due to the lack of available land between Winchester College and St. Catherine&#39;s Hill. After several public inquiries, particularly with problems using the water meadows near the college, a route was chosen that took the motorway over the down, ultimately in a cutting. Although protesting against the M3 had been ongoing since the early 1970s, the protest-action on top of the down, described in 1994 as the most controversial British motorway project ever to start construction, attracted a wider group of classes of people than had previously been the case, and included physical violence from onsite security officers.</p><br>
<p>The motorway was completed as planned, and provided an important link of continuous motorway between Greater London and the South Coast ports. Nevertheless, the protests attracted interest from the national media, and drew attention to this form of campaigning. Subsequent road schemes were altered to take greater account of the environment or cancelled altogether. Several protesters at Twyford Down subsequently went on to form campaign groups such as the Campaign for Better Transport.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Twyford Down sits to the southeast of Winchester and the northeast of Twyford, and is part of the Winchester-East Meon Anticline. The downs 142 m summit, known as Deacon Hill, is towards the north-eastern edge of the area which is renowned for its dramatic rolling scenery and ecologically rich grassland. Its history can be traced back to pre-Roman times. Along it run a series of trackways known as "dongas", which resulted from farmers herding animals to surrounding markets. St Catherines Hill, in the centre of the down has been identified as a human settlement more than 3,000 years ago and pre-dates the foundation of Winchester. In the 3rd century, a fort was constructed on the hill, while in the 12th, a Norman chapel was constructed on the site. During the Middle Ages, paths along the down formed part of the Pilgrims Trail from Winchester to Normandy via Portsmouth. This is commemorated by the modern Pilgrims Trail which crosses the down.</p><br>
<p>In 1675, John Ogilby noted that the main coaching route from London to Southampton ran over the top of the down, going directly from Alresford to Twyford, avoiding Winchester. This remained the main coaching route until about 1800, when an alternative route via Winchester (now mostly the A31 and former A33) was formed. During this time, and up to the 19th century, the area was sometimes known as Morestead Down after the nearby village of Morestead.</p><br>
<p>Hockley Golf Club was established as a private members&#39; club on the down in 1914.</p><br>
<h2>The M3 motorway extension</h2><br>
<h3>Background</h3><br>
<p>Outline strategic planning for the route of what was to be later known as the M3 motorway had begun in the late 1930s. The route was to link London to Basingstoke, in order to reduce the pressure on the A30. Detailed planning for the first phase of construction, a 40 mi section, between Sunbury on Thames and Popham, began in 1962-3. The 26 mi section, between Lightwater and Popham, where the A30 and the A303 separated, opened in June 1971; this was followed by the Sunbury to Lightwater section which opened in July 1974. The second phase was to extend the motorway 10 mi southwards between Popham and Winchester, ending at Compton. Planning began with the first public inquiry which was held in 1971, to set the line of the motorway, and this second section was opened in 1985. The third and final phase was to extend the motorway from Winchester to Southampton and the M27 motorway, and the northern part of this section was to impact on Winchester&#39;s bypass.</p><br>
<p>Winchester had been a traffic bottleneck for many years as several major routes passed through the historic city centre, including the A31, A33 and A34, as well as smaller routes like the A272. In the 1930s, a by-pass was planned to the east of the city, passing immediately west of St. Catherine&#39;s Hill, opening to traffic on 1 February 1940. Construction of this had been controversial as it affected the Itchen Valley and offered only a partial solution to congestion, with some people calling instead for a by-pass to the north and west of Winchester.</p><br>
<p>As a 1930s road construction project, the bypass was built to then-contemporary standards, including at-grade crossings at Bar End and at Hockley. As time progressed, the bypass became more and more of a bottleneck as roads around it were improved to higher standards, particularly after the opening of the A33 Chandlers Ford Bypass in 1968 and the A34 Kings Worthy Link the following year, which meant all long distance traffic, as opposed to merely that from London to Southampton, was using the bypass. Morgan Morgan-Giles described the bypass as "utterly inadequate and dangerous, as everybody who lives in or near Winchester will agree. The accident figures are appalling. Therefore, a new motorway somewhere to relieve the traffic is urgently needed." but the junction at Hockley remained a key point of congestion.</p><br>
<h3>Public inquiries</h3><br>
<p>At this point, the option of going over or through Twyford Down had not been considered, and the alignment of the proposed six-lane M3 motorway (three lines in each direction) was to run through the Itchen valley roughly west of the existing four-lane bypass. This would also require the realignment of the Itchen Navigation into the water meadows. and in 1973 the government approved this route. Morgan-Giles argued in parliament to support the scheme, pointing out that Winchester and the Down had been cut off since construction of the old bypass anyway, and growth of Southampton Docks meant that improved links from London and the Midlands would become increasingly essential.</p><br>
<p>In 1981, Kenneth Clarke, then the Secretary of State for Transport, stated that, since the route of the M3 was then fixed as far as Bar End, to the north of St. Catherine&#39;s Hill, that its route from there to Compton would undergo a fresh study, specifically stating that the Winchester Bypass should continue to be operational during construction of any new road, and that environmental matters were a key concern. the junction at Hockley was the only set of traffic lights between London and Southampton.</p><br>
<p>The Ministry of Transport (MoT) had trouble purchasing the land required to complete the route past Winchester. The land required, east of the city on Twyford Down, was owned by Winchester College, which refused to sell the land to the government because part was a water meadow. In February 1992, the M3 was improved between Southampton and Compton, and soon afterwards work began on clearing the route across the down. Part of the contract stipulated that the old bypass would be removed and restored to nature, restoring direct access to St. Catherine&#39;s Hill.</p><br>
<h3>Physical protests</h3><br>
<p>Protests against the completion of the M3 had been ongoing since 1973, with the formation of the M3 Joint Action Group by David Pare. The group gathered together a petition of 19,000, of which 11,227 were Winchester residents. The group was also active in distributing leaflets to the local community.</p><br>
<p>In March 1992, two travellers pitched a camp on the down, and discovered from local ramblers about the Bar End - Compton contract, meaning the land they were sitting on would soon be excavated. In response, noting that public inquiries had failed to stop construction, they decided to gather support. In May 1992, environmental organisations attempted to take Department for Transport to the High Court, stating that the road was against the governments own environmental protection laws. The European Commission dropped the case that August. David Croker, who had become head of the protest group Twyford Down Association, said they "had come to depend on the European Commission so were very disappointed."</p><br>
<p>The principal arguments of the protesters were their concern about making wildlife species, such as the Chalkhill Blue butterfly, extinct, putting a highly visible scar on the landscape, and that they believed the new motorway would not adequately resolve traffic problems.</p><br>
<p>Protesters demonstrated their opposition to the road&#39;s construction by blocking the path of construction equipment, but generally not involving themselves in physical altercations. They were met by security officers from Group 4. In December 1992, in view of a film crew from The Observer, a protester was assaulted by five officers. Another protester, according to a report by local MP John Denham, was strangled by officers and left unconscious on top of the Down for 30 minutes. Maggie Lambert, then a mature photography student, took numerous photographs of the protest, and challenged an injunction which suggested she had been involved with direct action. While Lord Justice Mann admitted there was no evidence to suggest she had done anything more than take photographs, the injunction was upheld. Protester Rebecca Lush Blum, who had stayed on the down from September to the night of eviction, later claimed "It was a horrific experience and very violent. We were dragged through thorns and we were being kicked and punched and someone pulled out a clump of my hair." In March 1993, Kenneth Carlisle, then Minister for Roads and Traffic, refused to order an inquiry into any wrongdoing or excessive force by security officers, stating it was a matter for the police.</p><br>
<p>The protest attracted different classes of people, the majority of which were peaceful. According to Denham, a popular phrase amongst those protesting was "I never thought that I would find myself doing something like this." Stephen Ward, who had been involved in the original 1970s protest, decided in early 1993 that excessive force was being used against protesters, and started keeping a log of events. He used this log when defending other protesters in court, visited those who had been imprisoned, and offered them bail. He subsequently established a legal precedent of the right for protesters and demonstrators to have a witness while being questioned.</p><br>
<h3>Outcome</h3><br>
<p>The motorway section that was eventually constructed through Twyford Down completed the route of the M3 motorway. This removed traffic from the earlier Winchester Bypass, allowing its closure, and significantly reduced heavy traffic volumes from the village of Twyford. When interviewed for The Independent, local residents said the removal had transformed the place, one adding "St. Catherines Hill used to be cut off from Winchester by the A33. Now theres open, peaceful countryside. It&#39;s wonderful."</p><br>
<p>In 1994, a government committee concluded that building more roads encourages more traffic and that the way to ease congestion and pollution was to take measures to control car use rather than accommodate more. When Labour came to power in 1997, most of the road schemes were cancelled.</p><br>
<p>In 2000, campaigners mounted legal action to preserve an area of grassland created on the route of the old A33 Winchester bypass in mitigation of the land lost to the motorway which was threatened by a Park and Ride site. The legal action failed and the campaigners claimed that they had been betrayed for a second time. Land was provided elsewhere in mitigation.</p><br>
<p>In 2004, Winchester Cathedral received £86,000 from the Highways Agency in compensation for increased traffic noise from the M3. The Rev. Michael Till explained that "the noise comes beaming straight across The Close. It does change life having a perpetual background noise". Also in that year, veterans of a Twyford Down protest threatened a new campaign of direct action in response to 200 new road-building proposals in the government&#39;s recently unveiled ten-year transport plan. Rebecca Lush Blum went on to found Road Block in 2005, which became part of the Campaign for Better Transport (UK) in 2007. Veteran road protester Chris Gillam believes that his efforts in protesting against Twyford Down, where he took an active role in confronting security officers and crawling under razor wire, helped later road schemes, such as the Hindhead Tunnel to be planned with greater consideration about the environment.</p><br>
<p>In 2012, several of the original protesters returned to the down to hold a 20th anniversary celebration of the protest.</p><br>
<p>In 2011, Twyford Down became part of the western extremity of the South Downs National Park, having previously been designated as part of the East Hampshire AONB (Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty).</p><br>
<p>The American Philosophical Society , founded in 1743 and located in Philadelphia, is an eminent scholarly organization of international reputation that promotes useful knowledge in the sciences and humanities through excellence in scholarly research, professional meetings, publications, library resources, and community outreach. Considered the first learned society in the United States, it has played an important role in American cultural and intellectual life for over 270 years.</p><br>
<p>Through research grants, published journals, the American Philosophical Society Museum, an extensive library, and regular meetings, the society continues to advance a variety of disciplines in the humanities and the sciences. Philosophical Hall, now a museum, is located just east of Independence Hall in Independence National Historical Park; it was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1965.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Philosophical Society, as it was originally called, was founded in 1743 by Benjamin Franklin, James Alexander (lawyer), Francis Hopkinson, John Bartram, Philip Syng, Jr. and others as an offshoot of an earlier club, the Junto. It was founded two years after the University of Pennsylvania, with which it remains closely tied.</p><br>
<p>Since its inception, the society attracted America&#39;s finest minds. Early members included George Washington, John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Alexander Hamilton, James McHenry, Thomas Paine, David Rittenhouse, Nicholas Biddle, Owen Biddle, Benjamin Rush, James Madison, Michael Hillegas, John Marshall, and John Andrews. The society also recruited members from other countries, including Alexander von Humboldt, the Marquis de Lafayette, Baron von Steuben, Tadeusz Kościuszko, and Princess Dashkova.</p><br>
<p>By 1746 the society had lapsed into inactivity. In 1767, however, it was revived, and on January 2, 1769, it united with the American Society for Promoting Useful Knowledge under the name American Philosophical Society Held at Philadelphia for Promoting Useful Knowledge. Benjamin Franklin was elected the first president. During this time, the society maintained a standing Committee on American Improvements; one of its investigations was to study the prospects of a canal to connect the Chesapeake Bay and the Delaware River. The canal, which had been proposed by Thomas Gilpin, Sr., would not become reality until the 1820s.</p><br>
<p>After the American Revolution, the society looked for leadership to Francis Hopkinson, one of the signatories of the Declaration of Independence. Under his influence, the society received land from the government of Pennsylvania, along with a plot of land in Philadelphia where Philosophical Hall now stands.</p><br>
<p>Illustrious names have continually been added to the membership roster, reflecting the society&#39;s scope. Charles Darwin, Robert Frost, Louis Pasteur, Elizabeth Cabot Agassiz, John James Audubon, Linus Pauling, Margaret Mead, Maria Mitchell, and Thomas Edison became members of the society. The society continues to attract names of high renown today, with a current membership list (as of the April 2005 elections) of 920 members, including 772 resident members (citizens or residents of the United States) and 148 foreign members representing more than two dozen countries.</p><br>
<p>Many members of the Society of the Cincinnati were among the APS&#39;s first board members and contributors; today the APS and SOC still maintain an informal, collegial relationship.</p><br>
<h2>Awards</h2><br>
<p>In 1786, the society established the Magellanic Premium, a prize for achievement in "navigation, astronomy, or natural philosophy," the oldest scientific prize awarded by an American institution, which it still awards. Other awards include the Barzun Prize for cultural history, Judson Daland Prize for Outstanding Achievement in Clinical Investigation, the Benjamin Franklin Medal, the Lashley Award for neurobiology, the Lewis Award, and the Thomas Jefferson Medal for distinguished achievement in the arts, humanities, or social sciences.</p><br>
<h2>Publications</h2><br>
<p>The APS has published the Transactions of the American Philosophical Society since 1771. Currently five issues appear each year. The Proceedings have appeared since 1838: they publish the papers delivered at the biannual meetings of the society. The society has also published the collected papers of Benjamin Franklin, Joseph Henry, William Penn, and Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. Jane Aitken bound some 400 volumes for the society.</p><br>
<h2>Buildings</h2><br>
<h3>Philosophical Hall</h3><br>
<p>Philosophical Hall, located at 104 South Fifth Street, between Chestnut and Walnut Streets, immediately south of Old City Hall, was built in 1785–89 to house the society and was designed by Samuel Vaughan in the Federal style. A third floor was added in 1890, to accommodate the expanding library, but was removed in 1948–50 when the building was restored to its original appearance for the creation of Independence National Historical Park. In 2001, it was opened to the public as The American Philosophical Society Museum, hosting revolving, thematic exhibitions that explore the intersections of history, art, and science. The museum features works of art, scientific instruments, original manuscripts, rare books, natural history specimens, and curiosities of all kinds from the APS&#39;s own collections, along with objects on loan from other institutions.</p><br>
<h3>Library Hall</h3><br>
<p>In 1789–90, the Library Company of Philadelphia (LCP) built its headquarters directly across 5th Street from APS. LCP sold its building in 1884, which was demolished for the expansion of the Drexel & Company Building in 1887. This building itself was demolished in the mid-1950s, during the creation of Independence National Historical Park.</p><br>
<p>APS built a library on the site in 1958, and recreated the facade of the old LCP building.</p><br>
<h3>Benjamin Franklin Hall</h3><br>
<p>APS restored the former Farmers & Mechanics Bank building at 425–29 Chestnut Street, which was built in 1854–5 to the design of John M. Gries in the Italianate style, to serve as a lecture hall. It is the site of meetings and most major events hosted or produced by the society.</p><br>
<h3>Richardson Hall</h3><br>
<p>Constance C. and Edgar P. Richardson Hall at 431 Chestnut Street, immediately west of Benjamin Franklin Hall, is the former Pennsylvania Company for Insurances on Lives and Granting Annuities Building, which was built in 1871–73 and was designed by Addison Hutton. It now contains offices and the Philadelphia Area Center for History of Science.</p><br>
<p>Bibliography</p><br>
<p>The Aletsch Glacier  or Great Aletsch Glacier  is the largest glacier in the Alps. It has a length of about 23 km , The Aletsch Glacier is composed of four smaller glaciers converging at Concordia Place, where its thickness was measured by the ETH to be still near 1 km. It then continues towards the Rhône valley before giving birth to the Massa. The Aletsch Glacier is – like most glaciers on this world – a retreating glacier. As of 2016, since 1980 it lost 1.3 km of its length, since 1870 3.2 km, and lost also more than 300 m of its thickness.</p><br>
<p>The whole area, including other glaciers is part of the lang, which was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2001.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Aletsch Glacier is one of the many glaciers located between the cantons of Bern and Valais on the Bernese Alps located east of the Gemmi Pass. The whole area is considered to be the largest glaciated area in western Eurasia. The Fiescher and Aar Glaciers lying on the east have similar extensions.</p><br>
<p>Except the Finsteraarhorn, all the highest summits of the Bernese Alps are located within the drainage basin of the glacier. The Jungfrau and Mönch constitute the northern boundary; the Gross Fiescherhorn and Gross Wannenhorn lie on its east side; finally the culminating point, the Aletschhorn (4,193 m) is located on the west side.</p><br>
<p>Before reaching the maximum flow, three smaller glaciers converge at Concordia Place (Konkordiaplatz):</p><br>
<p>From the western mouth flows the Grosser Aletschfirn, which runs along the northern foot of the Aletschhorn and Dreieckhorn. The Grosser Aletschfirn is supplied from the north by three notable firns: the Äbeni Flue-Firn, the Gletscherhornfirn, and the Kranzbergfirn. All of these firns have their starting points at around 3,800 m. From the Äbeni Flue-Firn to the Konkordiaplatz, the Grosser Aletschfirn is 9 km long and is on average about 1.5 km wide. On the west, the Grosser Aletschfirn connects with the Langgletscher over the 3,158 m high glacier pass, the Lötschenlücke, into the Lötschental.</p><br>
<p>From the northwestern mouth flows the Jungfraufirn. This firn in fact represents the straight continuation of the Aletsch Glacier, yet is the shortest of the four tributary glaciers. It has its origin on the southern flank of the Mönch and at the eastern flank of the Jungfrau with the Jungfraujoch in-between. Up to the Konkordiaplatz, the Jungfraufirn is a scarce 7 km long, and returns to flank the Kranzberg in the west and the Trugberg in the east. At its highest point, it is 2 km wide, and further down it is still a good 1 km wide.</p><br>
<p>From the northern mouth flows the Ewigschneefäld ("Eternal snow field"), where its starting point takes the east flank of the Mönch. In an elbow, it flanks from Trugberg in the west and the Gross Fiescherhorn and Grünhorn in the east, flowing on to the Konkordiaplatz. Up to here, it is about 8 km long and averages about 1.2 km wide. The mouth at the Konkordiaplatz it follows over a rise with a descent from 25 to 30 percent; here, the glacier is sharply split. Against the north is the Ewigschneefäld over the snow-covered pass of the Unners Mönchsjoch (3,518 m), connected with the catchment area of the Ischmeer (Wallis German for "Ice Sea"). Through the Obere Mönchsjoch (3,624 m) between the Mönch and the Trugberg stands a connection to the Jungfraufirn.</p><br>
<p>From the east, the smallest firn arrives at the Konkordiaplatz: the Grüneggfirn. Its northern arm begins below the Grünegghorn (3,860 m). The southern arm collects its snow and ice in the pot flanked by the Wyssnollen, Fiescher Gabelhorn (3,866 m), and the Chamm. Between the peaks Wyssnollen and Grünhörnli another glacier pass, the Grünhornlücke (3,279 m), connects to the Fieschergletscher. The Grüneggfirn enters the Konkordiaplatz in a gap between the mountainsides Grünegg to the north and the Fülberg to the south. On the western side of the Fülberg the Konkordiahütte (mountain hut) overlooks the whole Konkordiaplatz at an altitude of 2,850 m.</p><br>
<p>South of Concordia Place the glacier runs towards the valley of the Oberwallis (Upper Valais); on the east side, near Bettmeralp, lies a small glacier lake, Märjelensee (2,301 m); from the western side used to enter the Mittelaletschgletscher, but since the end cof the 20th century the connection with the Aletsch Glacier has been lost. Further down, until about 1880, the Oberaletschgletscher did also enter the Aletsch Glacier at its mouth. But since then both glaciers have been retreating so far that they do not connect anymore (the Upper Aletsch Glacier did retreat about 1.3 km from its connecting point with the Aletsch Glacier), but both serve now only as the source of the river Massa. The river flows through the Lake Rhône near Brig.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>The area of the Aletsch Glacier and some surrounding valleys is on the UNESCO World Heritage list, thus it is protected and the facilities are mostly restricted to the external zones. The region between Belalp, Riederalp and Bettmeralp (which is called Aletsch Region) in Valais gives access to the lower part of the glacier. The Bettmerhorn and Eggishorn are popular view points and are accessible by cable car. The Massa river can be crossed since 2008 by a suspension bridge, thus allowing hikes between the left and the right part of the glacier.</p><br>
<p>The Jungfraujoch railway station (3,450 m) gives a direct access to the upper Aletsch Glacier as well as the normal route to the Jungfrau. It can be reached only from Interlaken in the canton Bern. Glacier tours can be loved with the help of the lang or the Hollandia Hut, eventually reaching other glaciers in the massif.</p><br>
<p>On the Riederfurka, at 2,065 metres between Riederalp and the glacier, is located the historic Villa Cassel, former summer residence of many numerous famous and influential guests from the worlds of politics and finance. The house is now one of the centers of the environmental organization Pro Natura, which hosts a permanent exhibition about the site.</p><br>
<h2>Panorama</h2><br>
<p>Also at the mouth of the Konkordiaplatz from the east is the small but important Grüneggfirn (3 km long and averaging 600 m wide). This firn is connected in the over the glacier pass Grünhornlücke (3280 m high) to the lang in the east.</p><br>
<p>From the Konkordiaplatz, the Aletsch Glacier has a width of approximately 1.5 km and moves at a rate of 180 m per year to the southeast on course with the Rhône valley, bordering the Dreieckhorn in the west and the great Wannenhorn in the east. It then takes a great right turn and bends ever closer to the southwest, running through the edge of the Eggishorn and Bettmerhorn of the Rhône valley. The lowest part of the great Aletsch Glacier is largely covered with detritus of the lateral and medial moraines. The glacier&#39;s toe currently lies about 1560 m high, far beneath the local tree line. From it springs the Massa stream, which flows though the Massa Canyon and is used to generate hydroelectric power. It continues through the upper half of the Brig, eventually entering into the Rhône.</p><br>
<p>The great Aletsch Glacier shows considerable ice cover. At the Konkordiaplatz, it has an ice cover of more than 900 m, but as it moves to the south, the greater part of the ice melts, gradually decreasing the cover to around 150 m.</p><br>
<p>The characteristically dark medial moraine, situated almost in the middle of the glacier, runs protracted in two bands from the Konkordiaplatz along the whole length to the glacier&#39;s toe-zone. This medial moraine is collected from the ice of three large ice fields, which all run together. The westernmost medial moraine has been named the Kranzbergmoräne, and the easternmost carries the name Trugbergmoräne.</p><br>
<h2>Formation and evolution</h2><br>
<p>The Aletsch Glacier resulted from the accumulation and compaction of snow. Glaciers generally form where snow and ice accumulation exceeds snow and ice melt. As the snow and ice thicken it reaches a point where it begins to move due to a combination of gravity and pressure of the overlying snow and ice.</p><br>
<p>During the last glacial periods, the Aletsch Glacier was much larger than now. 18,000 years ago the lower part of the ridge, between Riederalp and the glacier, was completely covered by ice. Only the summits of the Bettmerhorn, Eggishorn and the Fusshörner were above the glacier. After an important retreat, the glacier again advanced 11,000 years ago during the last glacial period. The glacier reached the Rhône valley, and its ice the Riederfurka. Remaining moraines are still visible in the Aletsch Forest.</p><br>
<p>Since the last glaciation, the glacier generally retreated. However slight climatic changes happened and, in 1860, the glacier was 3 km longer and the ice level 200 m higher.</p><br>
<p>As for many other glaciers, records show a major longer-term retreat trend. The Aletsch Glacier receded by 3.2 km since 1870, including 1.3 km since 1980. A record retreat of 114.6 m happened in 2006 alone.</p><br>
<h2>Photo opportunity</h2><br>
<p>On August 18, 2007, photographer Spencer Tunick used hundreds of naked people in a "living sculpture" on the Aletsch Glacier in a photo shoot which he said was intended to draw attention to global warming and the shrinking of the world&#39;s glaciers. The temperature was about 10 °C (50 °F) at the time of the photo shoot. The 600 participants on the shrinking glacier said that they had volunteered for Tunick (a collaboration with Greenpeace) to let the world know about the effects of global warming on the melting Swiss glaciers.</p><br>
<p>Camano Island is a large island in the Possession Sound portion of Puget Sound, located in Island County, Washington, between Whidbey Island and the mainland. The body of water separating Whidbey Island and Camano Island is called Saratoga Passage. Camano Island is separated from mainland Snohomish County by Davis Slough near the city of Stanwood. The island is reached via State Route 532 over the Camano Gateway Bridge in the northeast of the island.</p><br>
<p>There were 13,358 residents on the island as of the 2000 census, but the population peaks at 17,000 during the summer months with retired "snowbirds." The island has a total land area of 102.99 km² (39.77 sq mi), though it was larger before the Great Slide of 1825.</p><br>
<p>During the Last Ice Age the island, sound and land surrounding the sound was covered by a mile thick sheet of ice. As temperatures rose the glacier receding carving the island and leaving behind deposits of glacial till.</p><br>
<h2>Name origin</h2><br>
<p>Camano Island is named for the Spanish explorer Jacinto Caamaño. The original name of the island was Kal-lut-chin which in the language of the indigenous Snohomish tribe meant "land jutting into a bay". They used the island as a base during the fishing and shellfish gathering expeditions. Charles Wilkes, during the Wilkes Expedition of 1838–1842, named it MacDonough Island in honor of Thomas MacDonough for his victory of the Battle of Lake Champlain during the War of 1812. Following this theme, Wilkes named the body of water between Camano and Whidbey Island after MacDonoughs flagship the Saratoga. When Henry Kellett reorganized the official British Admiralty charts in 1847, he removed Wilkes name MacDonough and bestowed the name Camano, which the Spanish had originally given to Admiralty Inlet in 1790. Wilkes&#39; name Saratoga Passage was retained.</p><br>
<p>Jacinto Caamaño explored much of the Pacific Northwest going as farth north as what is now Alaska for the Spanish. He began his expedition far to the south in San Blas, Mexico. In addition to its Snohomish name the island has also been known as Macdonough Island named for Thomas Macdonough a USA Navy officer during the War of 1812 and as Perry Island after an 1855 treaty between local Native Americans and Washington Territory governor Isaac Stevens. The first Euro-American settlers on the island arrived at the time of the signing of the treaty. Lastly the island was called Crow Island during the logging era that took place during the early 1900s.</p><br>
<h2>Events</h2><br>
<p>The Port Susan Snow Goose & Birding Festival (Feb)</p><br>
<p>The Camano Island Mother&#39;s Day Art Studio Tour (May)</p><br>
<p>The Spring Art Show (June)</p><br>
<p>Twin City Idlers Classic Car Show (June)</p><br>
<p>Art by the Bay, The Stanwood–Camano Festival of Art and Music (July)</p><br>
<p>Vintage Trailer Show (July)</p><br>
<p>The Stanwood Camano Community Fair (August)</p><br>
<p>Collectors Car Show (August)</p><br>
<p>The Harvest Jubilee (Sept)</p><br>
<p>The AAUW Art for Education Show (October)</p><br>
<p>The Stanwood–Camano Chili & Chowder Cookoff (November)</p><br>
<p>The Col du Galibier  is a mountain pass in the southern region of the French Dauphiné Alps near Grenoble. It is the ninth highest paved road in the Alps and the sixth highest mountain pass. It is often the highest point of the Tour de France.</p><br>
<p>It connects Saint-Michel-de-Maurienne and Briançon via the col du Télégraphe and the Col du Lautaret. The pass is closed during the winter. It is located between the massif d&#39;Arvan-Villards and the massif des Cerces, taking its name from the secondary chain of mountains known as the Galibier.</p><br>
<p>Before 1976, the tunnel was the only point of passage at the top, at an altitude of 2556 m. The tunnel was closed for restoration until 2002, and a new road was constructed over the summit. The re-opened tunnel is a single lane controlled by traffic lights, which are among the highest such installations in Europe.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1876 first passable road could be opened between Maurienne and Briançonnais respectively Oisans. In the north passroad begins in Valloire, this place is only reachable via Col du Télégraphe which is before Galibier and connects Saint-Michel-de-Maurienne with Valloire. In the south the road begins at a level of Col du Lautaret, which connects Grenoble in the west with Briançon in the east. Highest point of this road was at an altitude of, 16 meters higher than nowadays. Road between Col du Lautaret is 24,5 kilometers long, 16 kilometers is the northern part, 8,5 kilometers is the south part. Road over Galibier was first a natural road and later asphalted.</p><br>
<h2>Construction and opening of crest tunnel 1890/1891</h2><br>
<p>In the area of the summit it was hard to travel. This was the reason why in 1890 a crest tunnel (363 meters) was built, which was opened in 1891. The tube is four meters broad, a single track which can be passed only alternately. The new tunnel is at an altitude of 2556 meters, this is the reason why the highest point is now 102 meters lower. New build tunnel shortens the distance to 23 kilometers. 15 kilometers is the north part, 7,5 Kilometer is the south part and 0,5 kilometers is the crest tunnel.</p><br>
<h2>Details of the climb</h2><br>
<p>From the north, starting at Saint-Michel-de-Maurienne (including the Col du Télégraphe), the climb is 34.8 km long, gaining 2,120 m in height (an average of 6.1%). The actual climb to the summit starts at Valloire and is 18.1 km long at an average of 6.9% (height gain: 1,245 m). The maximum gradient is 10.1% at the summit.</p><br>
<p>From the south, the climb starts from the Col du Lautaret (el. 2,058 m) and is 8.5 km long at an average gradient of 6.9% (height gain: 585 m) with a maximum of 12.1% at the summit.</p><br>
<p>On both sides of the Col du Galibier mountain pass cycling milestones are placed every kilometre. They indicate the distance to the summit, the current altitude, and the average slope in the following kilometre.</p><br>
<h2>The Tour de France</h2><br>
<p>The Col du Galibier was first used in the Tour de France in 1911; the first rider over the summit was Emile Georget, who, with Paul Duboc and Gustave Garrigou were the only riders not to walk.</p><br>
<p>The original summit was at 2556 m. while the tunnel was closed from 1976 until 2002, the tour route went only over the pass closer to the mountain peak at 2645 m. In 2011, the Tour de France went through the tunnel for the first time during the 19th stage from Modane Valfréjus to LAlpe dHuez.</p><br>
<p>At the south portal of the tunnel, at the edge of the road, there is a monument to Henri Desgrange, instigator and first director of the Tour de France. The memorial was inaugurated when the tour passed on 19 July 1949. Whenever the tour crosses the Col du Galibier, a wreath is laid on the memorial. The "Souvenir Henri Desgrange" is awarded to the first rider across the summit of the highest mountain in each year&#39;s tour. In 2006, the prize of 5,000 euros was claimed on the Col du Galibier by Michael Rasmussen.</p><br>
<p>Since 1947, the Col de Galibier has been crossed 31 times by the Tour de France. It was scheduled to be used in 1996, but was left out at the last minute due to bad weather. As a result of snow on both the Col de lIseran and the Col du Galibier, the scheduled 190 km stage from Val-dIsère to Sestriere in Italy was reduced to a 46 km sprint from Le-Monetier-les-Bains which was claimed by Bjarne Riis, resulting in him taking the yellow jersey which he retained to the finish in Paris.</p><br>
<p>In the 2008 Tour, the Col du Galibier had been crossed on 23 July in the 210 km stage 17 from Embrun to Alpe d&#39;Huez.</p><br>
<p>The 2011 Tour climbed the Col du Galibier twice to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the first appearance of the pass in the Tour de France, including the first ever summit finish, won by Andy Schleck after a 60 km solo breakaway. This was the highest ever stage finish in the Tour de France. It was scheduled to be used again in stage 20 of the 2015 Tour, but was left out nine days before the race start due to landslides in the Chambon Tunnel, situated towards the bottom of the descent of the climb.</p><br>
<h3>Appearances in the Tour de France (since 1947)</h3><br>
<h2>The Giro d'Italia</h2><br>
<p>The 2013 Giro d&#39;Italia climbed the Col du Galibier, although the stage had to be shortened by 4 km due to heavy snowfall.</p><br>
<p>Öland is the second largest Swedish island and the smallest of the traditional provinces of Sweden. Öland has an area of 1,342 km² and is located in the Baltic Sea just off the coast of Småland. The island has 26,000 inhabitants. It is separated from the mainland by the Kalmar Strait and connected to it by the 6-km Öland Bridge, which opened on 30 September 1972.</p><br>
<h2>Administration</h2><br>
<p>The traditional provinces of Sweden no longer serve administrative or political purposes but still exist as historical and cultural entities. Öland is part of the administrative county of Kalmar County (Kalmar län) and consists of the two municipalities of Borgholm Municipality and Mörbylånga Municipality. There was an Öland County in the short period between 1819 and 1826; otherwise, the island has been part of Kalmar County since 1634.</p><br>
<h2>Heraldry</h2><br>
<p>Öland was granted provincial arms in 1560, but it would not be until the 1940s that the province was assigned its proper ones. The arms granted to Öland had been mixed up with the arms granted to Åland and this was not discovered until the 20th century. While Öland changed its coat of arms, Åland, which was now a Finnish (autonomous) province, kept its established but originally unintended coat of arms. The deer is meant to symbolize the status of Öland as a royal game park and the arms are topped by a ducal crown. Blazon: "Azure a Deer Or attired, hoofed and gorged Gules."</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Archaeological evidence indicates the island of Öland was settled about 8000 BC, with excavations dating from the Paleolithic era showing the presence of hunter-gatherers. In the early Stone Age, settlers from the mainland migrated across the ice bridge that connected the island across the Kalmar Strait.</p><br>
<p>Evidence of habitation of Öland (known in Latin as Oelandia) occurred at least as early as 6000 BC, when there were stone age settlements at Alby and other locations on the island. Burial grounds from the Iron Age through the Viking Age are clearly visible at Gettlinge, Hulterstad and other places on the perimeter ridge including stone ships.</p><br>
<p>There are nineteen Iron Age ringforts identified on the island, only one of which, Eketorp, has been completely excavated, yielding over 24,000 artifacts.</p><br>
<p>Around 900 AD, Wulfstan of Hedeby called the island "Eowland", the land of the Eowans:</p><br>
<p>However, this is not the first mention of the Eowans. There is an even earlier mention of the tribe in the Anglo-Saxon poem Widsith:</p><br>
<p>Scholars such as Schütte and Kendrick have pointed out that there was probably an even earlier mention of the people of Öland in 98 AD, by Tacitus, who called them the "Aviones":</p><br>
<p>In Swedish history, the island long served as a royal game park; Ottenby and Halltorps were in particular selected by the Swedish Crown in the Middle Ages as royal game reserves.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Öland is the second largest of the islands of Sweden and was historically divided into one chartered city and five hundreds.</p><br>
<h3>Cities and villages</h3><br>
<p>Alby</p><br>
<p>Borgholm (1816)</p><br>
<p>Gettlinge</p><br>
<p>Hulterstad</p><br>
<p>Färjestaden</p><br>
<p>Mörbylånga</p><br>
<p>Eriksöre</p><br>
<p>Stenåsa</p><br>
<p>Segerstad</p><br>
<p>Seby</p><br>
<p>Södra Sandby</p><br>
<p>Norra möckleby</p><br>
<p>Bläsinge</p><br>
<p>Gårdby</p><br>
<p>Ottenby</p><br>
<p>Köpingsvik</p><br>
<h3>Hundreds</h3><br>
<p>Algutsrum Hundred</p><br>
<p>Gräsgård Hundred</p><br>
<p>Möckleby Hundred</p><br>
<p>Runsten Hundred</p><br>
<p>Slättbo Hundred</p><br>
<p>Åkerbo Hundred</p><br>
<h3>Facts</h3><br>
<p>Highest Hill: Högsrum, 55 m</p><br>
<p>Largest lake: Hornsjön</p><br>
<p>Length: 137 km</p><br>
<p>Width (at widest point): 16 km</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>Öland has a semi-continental oceanic climate with vast temperature differences between summer and winter. There are two main weather stations, one located at the northern edge and the other at the southern edge. In spite of the more northerly latitude, Ölands northern edge is far milder than its southern edge, since air warm over greater surrounding landmasses during days, whilst retaining heavy maritime features during night. It is also more representative for the islands general climate, with only the deep south being much cooler down a narrow peninsula.</p><br>
<h2>Environment</h2><br>
<p>The dominant environmental feature of the island is the Stora Alvaret, a limestone pavement which is the habitat of numerous rare and endangered species. The first known scientific study of the biota of the Stora Alvaret occurred in the year 1741 with the visit of Linnaeus.</p><br>
<p>The underlying bedrock layer is mainly Cambrian sandstone and alum chert, and Ordovician limestone that dates from an approximate range of 540 to 450 million years ago. The Cambrian trilobite Eccaparadoxides oelandicus is named after Öland</p><br>
<p>Öland is served by a perimeter highway, Route 136.</p><br>
<p>In 2011 the Gripen Gas company filed a request for test drilling on Öland for natural gas. The request was approved by Bergsstaten, the governmental agency responsible for handling geological issues regarding prospecting. The approval has been met with criticism on the municipal and county administrative levels, citing that the many cracks in the limestone bedrock could cause the groundwater to become contaminated by the gas prospecting.</p><br>
<h2>Culture</h2><br>
<p>The Borgholm Castle was built between 1669 and 1681 for Queen Hedvig Eleonora, and designed by Nicodemus Tessin the Elder. In its vicinity sits the Solliden Palace, summer home to the royal family.</p><br>
<p>The limestone pavement habitat of southern Öland, known as Stora Alvaret, has been entered as a site of the UNESCO World Heritage program. Features of this are the many rare species found; prehistory sites such as Gettlinge and Eketorp; numerous old wooden windmills left standing, some of which date to the 17th century; and the special geological alvar landscape.</p><br>
<p>For a decade, Öland has been organizing an annual harvest festival called Skördefesten that takes place every October. In terms of this event, the island&#39;s farmers gather with farmers from the rest of the country and sell their crops and let those that are interested take part in everyday life on their farms, among other activities. There are also many art exhibitions for display during Skördefesten especially during the art night Konstnatten.</p><br>
<p>The romantic poet Erik Johan Stagnelius was born in the Öland parish of Gärdslösa in 1793 and lived there until 16 years of age. He wrote several poems about the island. More modern writers living on or writing about Öland include novelist Margit Friberg (1904–1997), poet Anna Rydstedt (1928–1994), novelist Birgitta Trotzig (1929-2011), poet Lennart Sjögren (1930-), children novelist Eva Bexell (1945-), poet Tom Hedlund (1945-), novelist Johan Theorin (1963-), poet and novelist Magnus Utvik (1964-) and novelist Per Planhammar (1965-).</p><br>
<h2>Skördefest</h2><br>
<p>Skördefest is an annual harvest festival on Öland, held every September, which attracts thousands of visitors. Pumpkins are placed upon the top of bales of hay, a signal to buyers that fall harvest goods are available for sale at the location. In Borgholm, a pumpagubbe (pumpkin man), a large scarecrow like figure, built entirely of gourds, is erected at town center. The pumpagubbe celebrates the bounty of the Fall Harvest.</p><br>
<h2>Sports</h2><br>
<p>Football in the province is administered by Smålands Fotbollförbund.</p><br>
<p>Each year the King&#39;s Rally, a vintage motorcade, takes place in Öland.</p><br>
<p>Manukau Harbour is the second largest natural harbour in New Zealand by area. It is located to the southwest of the Auckland isthmus, and opens out into the Tasman Sea.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The harbour mouth is between the northern head ("Burnett Head" / "Ohaka Head") located at the southern end of the Waitakere Ranges and South Head at the end of the long Awhitu Peninsula reaching up from close to the mouth of the Waikato River. The mouth is only 1800 metres wide, but after a nine kilometre channel it opens up into a roughly square basin 20 kilometres in width. The harbour has a water surface area of 394 square kilometres. There is a tidal variation of up to 4 metres, a very substantial change, especially since the harbour, being silted up with almost 10 million years of sedimentation, is rather shallow itself.</p><br>
<p>Because of the large harbour area and narrow mouth between the Manukau Heads, tidal flow is rapid and a bar at the mouth makes navigating in or out of the harbour dangerous. New Zealands most tragic shipwreck occurred on the bar in 1863 when HMS Orpheus ran aground in clear weather with a loss of 189 lives. For this reason, along with the harbours shallowness, it is not Auckland&#39;s favoured port, and, with only one short wharf, the facilities at Onehunga are tiny compared to the other Ports of Auckland facilities on the Waitematā Harbour along the northeast of the isthmus.</p><br>
<p>The harbour has three main arms. The Mangere Inlet at the northeast lies close to Aucklands central city area, with the inner suburbs of Onehunga and Te Papapa situated close to its northern shore. The Otahuhu and Mangere urban areas lie south of this arm, which is crossed by the Mangere Bridge. In the southeast is the Papakura Channel, which extends into the urban area of Papakura. In the southwest a further inlet known as the Waiuku River reaches south to the town of Waiuku. The harbour reaches into Mangere Lagoon, which occupies a volcanic crater. Auckland Airport is located close to the harbours eastern shore.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The harbour was an important historical waterway for the Māori. It had several portages to the Pacific Ocean and to the Waikato River, and various villages and pā (hill forts) clustered around it. Snapper, flounder, mullet, scallops, cockles and pipi provided food in plentiful amounts.</p><br>
<p>Cornwallis, beside the Puponga Peninsula, was the first site for the future city of Auckland. However, because of fraudulent land sales and rugged conditions, the settlement was abandoned in the 1840s. The surrounding bush clad hills had vast amounts of kauri removed for milling and shipped from a wharf on Paratutai to either the other end of the harbour at Onehunga for use in house building in the new city of Auckland, or along the coast to other New Zealand settlements. The last mills were abandoned in the early 1920s.</p><br>
<p>European settlement of the area was thus almost often an outgrowth of the Waitematā Harbour-centred settlement, as these settlers spread south and west through the isthmus and reached the Manukau Harbour. One of the few separate earlier European settlements was Onehunga, from where some raiding of enemy settlements occurred during the New Zealand wars, and which later became a landing point for kauri and other products landed by ship and canoe from the south, the shipping route being shorter than the one along the east coast to the Waitematā Harbour. and the extension of the railway to Onehunga in 1873 made naval traffic on the harbour less important again, though the Port of Onehunga can trace its origins to this time.</p><br>
<p>Construction of a canal between the Manukau and the Waitemata was considered in the early 1900s, and the Auckland and Manukau Canal Act 1908 was passed to allow authorities to take privately owned land for this purpose. However, no serious work (or land take) was undertaken. The act was reported as technically still being in force as of 2008, but was repealed on 1 November 2010. A 2,700 ft canal reserve, 2 ch wide, remains in place.</p><br>
<h2>Recreation</h2><br>
<p>The harbour is popular for fishing, though entry to the water is difficult with few all-tide boat ramps; often local beaches are used.</p><br>
<p>The harbour also houses five active sailing clubs, three on the southern side, one near Mangere Bridge, and one on the northern side. Since 1988, there has been an annual interclub competition, hosted by each club in rotation.</p><br>
<h2>Threats to the harbour</h2><br>
<p>Despite all that is precious about the Manukau, it is under ongoing threat from constant development and growth, with the pollution and damage that brings.</p><br>
<p>Currently, according to the State of Auckland Marine Report Card, the harbour has a D-rating overall, based on water quality, contaminants and sediment, and ecology.</p><br>
<p>Careful and integrated management of land-based activities, such as development through good land-use practices, and commitment to a programme of integrated management is required to reverse this situation and secure a healthy, productive and sustainable resource for everybody now and for future generations.</p><br>
<p>Lulworth Cove is a cove near the village of West Lulworth, on the Jurassic Coast World Heritage Site in Dorset, southern England. The cove is one of the world&#39;s finest examples of such a landform, and is a tourist location with approximately 500,000 visitors a year, of whom about 30% visit in July and August. It is close to the rock arch of Durdle Door and other Jurassic Coast sites.</p><br>
<p>Lulworth Cove featured on the TV programme Seven Natural Wonders as one of the wonders of southern England.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The cove has formed as a result of bands of rock of alternating resistance running parallel to the coastline (a concordant coastline). On the seaward side the clays and sands have been eroded away. A narrow (less than 30 metre) band of Portland limestone rocks forms the shoreline. Behind this is a narrow (less than 50 metres) band of slightly less resistant Purbeck limestone. Behind this are 300–350 metres of much less resistant clays and greensands (Wealden clays, Gault and Upper Greensand).</p><br>
<p>Forming the back of the cove is a 250-metre-wide band of chalk, which is considerably more resistant than the clays and sands, but less resistant than the limestones. The entrance to the cove is a narrow gap in the limestone bands, formed by wave action and weathering. The wide part of the cove is where the weak clays and greensands have been eroded. At the back of the cove, the sea has been unable to erode the chalk as fast because chalk does not dissolve in the sea acids.</p><br>
<p>The unique shape of the cove is a result of wave diffraction. The narrow entrance to the cove causes waves to bend into an arced shape, as is visible in the photograph below.</p><br>
<h2>Stair Hole</h2><br>
<p>Stair Hole, less than half a mile away, is an infant cove which suggests what Lulworth Cove would have looked like a few hundred thousand years ago. The sea has made a gap in the Portland and Purbeck limestone here, as well as a small arch. The sea has made its way through to the Wealdon clays and begun eroding them. The clay shows obvious signs of slumping, and is eroding very rapidly. Stair Hole shows one of the best examples of limestone folding (the Lulworth crumple) in the world, caused by movements in the Earth&#39;s crust (tectonics) millions of years ago. Folding can also be seen at nearby Durdle Door and at Lulworth cove itself.</p><br>
<h2>Conservation, tourism, education and management</h2><br>
<p>Lulworth acts as a staircase to this part of the Jurassic Coast. As well as the cove, across Hambury Tout (the large chalk hill to the west) is Durdle Door, a natural arch. To the east there is a fossilised forest. Lulworth is also close to Kimmeridge, famous for its rocky shore and fossils. Oil-bearing sands beneath the sea bed form the largest British oil field outside the North Sea area, and contain the highest quality oil in Europe. Geologists and geographers have been interested in the area since the beginning of the 19th century, and in the 1830s the first serious study of the area took place. Since then the area has drawn Geology students from all over the world.</p><br>
<p>Purbeck suffers from trampling because of its many visitors and erosion from the sea. Management has been put in place to stop the coastline from being ruined, such as wooden steps and fences. These will keep people to a certain path and steps will reinforce the ground.</p><br>
<p>In 2001 the coast was granted World Heritage Site status by UNESCO. Experts at UNESCO have been working on preserving the shape of Lulworth Cove. Lulworth was one of a number of gateway villages on the coast with a Heritage Centre—part visitor centre, tourist information and natural history museum—which in 2002 received 418,595 visitors. Most of the area is privately owned by the Lulworth Estate, an estate held by the Welds wealthy landowning family.</p><br>
<p>Land to the east is owned by the Ministry of Defence and used for tank training, only open on weekends and holidays. The coast and land to the north and around the village is owned and managed by the Lulworth Estate (see Lulworth Castle). Each year, over 250,000 people walk across the hill linking the cove to Durdle Door.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>Lulworth Cove featured on the TV programme Seven Natural Wonders (2005) as one of the wonders of Southern England; and in the TV documentary Walking Through History (2013). It also appeared in the Mike Leigh TV film Nuts in May (1976), and was used for the location filming in the Doctor Who serial The Curse of Fenric (1989) and in the film adaptation of the book World War Z (2013). Thomas Hardy also wrote a poem mentioning the location titled "At Lulworth Cove a Century Back."</p><br>
<p>The Quirinal Palace  is a historic building in Rome, Italy, one of the three current official residences of the President of the Italian Republic, together with Villa Rosebery in Naples and Tenuta di Castelporziano in Rome. It is located on the Quirinal Hill, the highest of the seven hills of Rome. It has housed thirty Popes, four Kings of Italy and twelve presidents of the Italian Republic. The palace extends for an area of 110,500 square metres and is the ninth-largest palace in the world in terms of area. By way of comparison, the White House in the United States of America is one-twentieth of its size.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Origins</h3><br>
<p>The current site of the palace has been in use since Roman times, as excavations in the gardens testify. On this hill, the Romans built temples to several deities, from Flora to Quirinus, after whom the hill was named. During the reign of Constantine the last complex of Roman baths was built here, as the statues of the twins Castor and Pollux taming the horses decorating the fountain in the square testify. The Quirinal, being the highest hill in Rome, was very sought after and became a popular spot for the Roman patricians, who built their luxurious villas. An example of those are the remains of a villa in the Quirinal gardens, where a mosaic, part of the old floor has been found.</p><br>
<h3>Foundation of the current palace</h3><br>
<p>The palace, located on the Via del Quirinale and facing onto the Piazza del Quirinale, was built in 1583 by Pope Gregory XIII as a papal summer residence. The pope, who wanted to find a location which was far away from the humidity and stench coming from the river Tiber and the unhealthy conditions of the Lateran Palace, chose the Quirinal hill as it was one of the most suitable places in Rome. On the site, there was already a small villa owned by the Carafa family and rented to Luigi d&#39;Este. The pope commissioned the architect Ottaviano Mascherino to build a palace with porticoed parallel wings and an internal court. The project was not fully completed due to the death of the pope in 1585 but it is still recognisable in the north part of the court, especially in the double loggia facade, topped by the panoramic Torre dei venti (tower of the winds) or Torrino. To the latter, a bell tower was added according to a project by Carlo Maderno and Francesco Borromini.</p><br>
<h3>From the 17th century</h3><br>
<p>Pope Paul V commissioned the completion of the work on the main building of the palace.</p><br>
<p>The Palace was also used as the location for papal conclaves in 1823, 1829, 1831, and 1846. It served as a papal residence and housed the central offices responsible for the civil government of the Papal States until 1870. In September 1870, what was left of the Papal States was overthrown. About five months later, in 1871, Rome became the capital of the new Kingdom of Italy. The palace became the official royal residence of the Kings of Italy, though some monarchs, notably King Victor Emmanuel III (reigned 1900&ndash;1946) actually lived in a private residence elsewhere (Villa Savoia), the Quirinale being used simply as an office and for state functions. The monarchy was abolished in 1946 and the Palace became the official residence and workplace for the Presidents of the Italian Republic. Still, some declined the Colle residence and kept their usual Roman residence: for example, Sandro Pertini preferred his old flat near the Trevi Fountain.</p><br>
<p>The façade was designed by Domenico Fontana. Its Great Chapel was designed by Carlo Maderno. It contains frescos by Guido Reni, but the most famous fresco is the Blessing Christ by Melozzo da Forlì, placed over the stairs. Its grounds include a famous set of gardens laid out in the 17th century.</p><br>
<h2>Art</h2><br>
<h3>Interiors</h3><br>
<p>The palace is composed of the main building, which is built around the majestic courtyard, with the most beautiful halls of the complex environments that serve as representative of the Presidency of the Republic, while the offices and apartments of the head of state are housed in buildings at the bottom of the Manica Lunga, on the long side via del Quirinale, the top of which lie the opulent imperial apartments, which were specially arranged, decorated and furnished for two visits of Emperor William II (in 1888 and 1893) and which now houses the monarchs or foreign heads of state visiting the President of the Republic. The palace, in its totality has 1,200 rooms.</p><br>
<p>The rooms of the palace housed in the main building are:</p><br>
<p>The Courtyard of Honour</p><br>
<p>The Staircase of Honour</p><br>
<p>The Great Hall of the Cuirassiers</p><br>
<p>The Pauline Chapel</p><br>
<p>The First State Room</p><br>
<p>Room of the Virtues</p><br>
<p>The Room of the Flood</p><br>
<p>The Room of the Loggias</p><br>
<p>The Doorkeepers Room</p><br>
<p>Balcony Room</p><br>
<p>St John Parlour</p><br>
<p>Yellow Hall</p><br>
<p>Augustus Hall</p><br>
<p>Hall of the Ambassadors</p><br>
<p>Hercules Room</p><br>
<p>Hall of the Cabinets</p><br>
<p>The Mascarino Staircase</p><br>
<p>Loggia of Honour</p><br>
<p>Room of the Bees</p><br>
<p>The Hall of the Zodiac</p><br>
<p>The Hall of Paul V&#39;s Building Projects</p><br>
<p>The Hall of the Tapestries</p><br>
<p>The Chapel of the Annunciation</p><br>
<p>The Hall of the Mirrors</p><br>
<p>The Grand Ballroom</p><br>
<h3>Gardens</h3><br>
<p>The Quirinal Gardens, famous for their privileged position that makes of them almost an "island" elevated on Rome, were over the centuries changed depending on the tastes and needs of the papal court.</p><br>
<p>The current arrangement complements the garden "formal" seventeenth century facing the original core of the building with the garden "romantic" in the second half of the eighteenth century, preserving at that time the elegant Coffee House built by Ferdinando Fuga as reception room of Benedict XIV Lambertini, decorated by beautiful paintings of Girolamo Batoni Pompeo and Giovanni Paolo Pannini.</p><br>
<p>Within the Quirinal&#39;s gardens lies the famous water organ built between 1997 and 1999 by Barthélemy Formentelli based on the characteristics of the previous nineteenth century organ. The organ is fed by a waterfall with a jump of 18 meters and has a single keyboard of 41 notes with a first short octave, without pedalboard.</p><br>
<p>Overall, the Quirinal&#39;s gardens measure a 4 hectares (40,000 m²).</p><br>
<p>Under the gardens, through a trap door one can reach the archaeological excavations that have unearthed the remains of the original temple to the god Quirinus and some insulae of the imperial age.</p><br>
<p>The Golden Horn , also known by its modern Turkish name as Haliç, is a major urban waterway and the primary inlet of the Bosphorus in Istanbul, Turkey.</p><br>
<p>This prominent body of water is a horn-shaped estuary that joins Bosphorus Strait at the immediate point where the strait meets the Sea of Marmara, thus forming a narrow, isolated peninsula, the tip of which is "Old Istanbul" (ancient Byzantium and Constantinople), and the promontory of Sarayburnu, or Seraglio Point. The Golden Horn geographically separates the historic center of Istanbul from the rest of the city, and forms a natural, sheltered harbor that has historically protected Greek, Roman, Byzantine, Ottoman and other maritime trade ships for thousands of years.</p><br>
<p>While the reference to a "horn" is understood to refer to the inlets general shape, the significance of the designation "golden" is more obscure, with historians believing it to refer to either the riches brought into the city through the bustling historic harbor located along its shores, or to romantic artistic interpretations of the rich yellow light blazing upon the estuarys waters as the sun sets over the city. Its Greek and English names mean the same, while its Turkish name, Haliç, simply means "estuary", and is derived from the Arabic word khaleej, meaning "gulf".</p><br>
<p>Throughout its storied past, the Golden Horn has witnessed many tumultuous historical incidents, and its dramatic vistas have been the subject of countless works of art.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The Golden Horn is the estuary of the Alibeyköy and Kağıthane Rivers. It is 7.5 kilometers (4.66 mi) long, and 750 meters (2,460 ft) across at its widest. Its maximum depth, where it flows into the Bosphorus, is about 35 meters (115 ft).</p><br>
<p>At present, the Golden Horn is spanned by five bridges. Moving from upstream to downstream (i.e. northwest to southeast), these are as follows:</p><br>
<p>Haliç Bridge, completed in 1974, which connects the neighborhoods of Sütlüce and Defterdar</p><br>
<p>Eski Galata Bridge (literally Old Galata Bridge), now-defunct, which used to connect the downstream neighborhoods of Karaköy and Eminönü, but was disassembled and relocated upstream between Ayvansaray and Keçeci Piri following extensive damage in 1992 caused by a fire originating in the kitchen of one of the restaurants located on the bridge&#39;s lower level. Originally dating back to 1912, the now-retired structure is no longer used for vehicular or pedestrian traffic, but functions as a seasonal outdoor exhibit and event space attached to Haliç Park.</p><br>
<p>Atatürk Bridge, aka Unkapanı Bridge, completed in 1940, which connects Kasımpaşa and Unkapanı</p><br>
<p>Golden Horn Metro Bridge, a pedestrianized railway crossing, completed in 2014, that extends subway line M2 of the Istanbul Metro across the Golden Horn</p><br>
<p>Galata Bridge (its fifth incarnation, completed in 1994), between Karaköy and Eminönü</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Archaeological records show a significant urban presence on and around the Golden Horn dating back to at least the 7th century BC, with smaller settlements going as far back as 6700 BC as confirmed by recent discoveries of ancient ports, storage facilities, and fleets of trade ships unearthed during the construction works of the Yenikapı subway station and the Marmaray tunnel project.</p><br>
<p>Indeed, the deep natural harbor provided by the Golden Horn has always been a major economic attraction and strategic military advantage for inhabitants of the area, and the Eastern Roman colonizers that established Nova Roma along its shores, which became, in order, Byzantium, Constantinople, and ultimately, Istanbul, were no different.</p><br>
<p>The Byzantine Empire had its naval headquarters there, and walls were built along the shoreline to protect the city of Constantinople from naval attacks. At the entrance to the Horn on the northern side, a large chain was pulled across from Constantinople to the old Tower of Galata to prevent unwanted ships from entering. Known among the Byzantines as the Megàlos Pyrgos (meaning "Great Tower" in Greek), this tower was largely destroyed by the Latin Crusaders during the Fourth Crusade in 1204. In 1348, the Genoese built a new tower nearby which they called Christea Turris (Tower of Christ), now called Galata Tower.</p><br>
<p>There were three notable times when the chain across the Horn was either broken or circumvented. In the 10th century the Kievan Rus dragged their longships out of the Bosphorus, around Galata, and relaunched them in the Horn; the Byzantines defeated them with Greek fire. In 1204, during the Fourth Crusade, Venetian ships were able to break the chain with a ram. In 1453, Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II, having failed in his attempt to break the chain with brute force, instead used the same tactic as the Rus; towing his ships across Galata over greased logs and into the estuary.</p><br>
<p>After the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453, Mehmed II resettled ethnic Greeks along the Horn in the Phanar (today&#39;s Fener). Balat continued to be inhabited by Jews, as during the Byzantine age, though many Jews decided to leave following the takeover of the city. This area was repopulated when Bayezid II invited the Jews who were expelled from Spain to resettle in Balat.</p><br>
<p>In 1502, Leonardo da Vinci produced a drawing of a single-span 240 m bridge over the Golden Horn as part of a civil engineering project for Sultan Bayezid II. Leonardos drawings and notes regarding this bridge are currently displayed at the Museo della Scienza e della Tecnologia in Milan, Italy. While the original design was never executed, the vision of Leonardos Golden Horn Bridge was resurrected in 2001, when a small footbridge based on Leonardo&#39;s design was constructed near Ås in Norway by Vebjørn Sand.</p><br>
<p>Until the 1980s, the Horn was polluted with industrial waste from the factories, warehouses, and shipyards along its shores. It has since been cleaned, and the local fish, wildlife, and flora have been largely restored.</p><br>
<p>Nowadays, the Golden Horn is settled on both sides, and there are parks along each shore. The Istanbul Chamber of Commerce is also located along the shore, as are several Muslim, Jewish and Christian cemeteries. Other institutions along the Horn&#39;s banks include museums, congress and cultural halls, supporting facilities of the Turkish Navy, and campuses of various universities.</p><br>
<p>Today, the Horn&#39;s rich history and natural beauty make it a hugely popular tourist attraction in Istanbul, visited by 10 million international vacationers annually.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The Golden Horn is featured in many works of literature dealing with classical themes. For example, G. K. Chesterton&#39;s poem Lepanto contains the memorable couplet "From evening isles fantastical rings faint the Spanish gun, / And the Lord upon the Golden Horn is laughing in the sun."</p><br>
<h2>Image gallery</h2><br>
<p>The Johore Strait  is an international strait in Southeast Asia, between Singapore and mainland Malaysia.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The strait separates the Malaysian state of Johor on the mainland Malay Peninsula to the north, from Singapore and its islands on the south. It connects to the Strait of Malacca on the west, and the Singapore Strait on the southeast.</p><br>
<p>The mouth and delta of the Johor River is on its northeast side in Malaysia.</p><br>
<h3>Crossings</h3><br>
<p>There are currently two bridges crossing the strait. The Johor–Singapore Causeway, known simply as "The Causeway", links Johor Bahru and Woodlands in Singapore. The Malaysia–Singapore Second Link bridge is further west over the strait, links Gelang Patah in Malaysia and Tuas in Singapore.</p><br>
<p>In 2003, Malaysia wanted to build a bridge across the strait to replace the existing causeway, but negotiations with Singapore were not successful. The main reasons cited for the change were:</p><br>
<p>a bridge would allow free flow of water across both sides of the strait which were artificially cut in two with the building of the causeway before (this would allow ships to bypass the port of Singapore).</p><br>
<p>a bridge would help ease congestion in Johor Bahru.</p><br>
<p>In August 2003, Malaysia announced that it was going ahead with a plan to build a gently sloping, curved bridge that would join up with Singapore&#39;s half of the existing causeway. The plans included a swing bridge for the railway line. However, plans to build the bridge have been called off as of 2006.</p><br>
<h3>Tributaries</h3><br>
<p>Major tributaries which empty into the Strait of Johore include:</p><br>
<p>Sungai Tebrau</p><br>
<p>Sungai Segget</p><br>
<p>Johor River</p><br>
<p>Sungai Sengkuang</p><br>
<p>Sungai Haji Rahmat</p><br>
<p>Sungai Kempas</p><br>
<p>Sungai Sri Buntan</p><br>
<p>Sungai Abd Samad</p><br>
<p>Sungai Air Molek</p><br>
<p>Sungai Stulang</p><br>
<p>Sungai Setanggong</p><br>
<p>Sungai Tampoi</p><br>
<p>Sungai Sebulong</p><br>
<p>Sungai Bala</p><br>
<p>Sungai Pandan</p><br>
<p>Sungai Tengkorak</p><br>
<p>Sungai Plentong</p><br>
<p>Sungai Senibong</p><br>
<p>Sungai Pulai</p><br>
<p>In the Malay language, Sungai is the word for river.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>Pollution along the Johore Strait is notable.</p><br>
<p>The area is also a source of environmental contention between Malaysia and Singapore, due to land reclamation projects on both sides of the Causeway. There have been suggestions that the ongoing land reclamation projects may impact the maritime boundary, shipping lanes, and water ecology of the Malaysian side. Environmental Impact Assessments are requested before any reclamation is carried out such as the Forest City project.</p><br>
<p>Reclamation projects may also endanger the habitat and food source of dugongs, which are native to the strait.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Johore Strait is the location of two Victoria Cross deeds. The award was for Lieutenant Ian Edward Fraser and Acting Leading Seaman James Joseph Magennis for the sinking of the 9,850-tonne Japanese cruiser Takao on 31 July 1945.</p><br>
<h2>Places of interest</h2><br>
<p>A well known tourist attraction of the Strait of Johore&#39;s is Lido Beach, located on the Malaysian side in Johor Bahru. Here, visitors can walk or cycle along the 2 km stretch of the beach. There are numerous restaurants and food stalls.</p><br>
<p>The Cemetery of the Evergreens is a non-denominational cemetery in Brooklyn and Queens, New York, colloquially called Evergreen Cemetery. It was incorporated in 1849, not long after the passage of New York&#39;s Rural Cemetery Act spurred development of cemeteries outside Manhattan. For a time, it was the busiest cemetery in New York City; in 1929 there were 4,673 interments. The cemetery borders Brooklyn and Queens and covers 225 acre of rolling hills and gently sloping meadows. It features several thousand trees and flowering shrubs in a park-like setting. The Evergreens is the final resting place of more than 526,000 people.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Evergreens was built on the principle of the rural cemetery. Two of the era&#39;s most noted landscape architects, Andrew Jackson Downing and Alexander Jackson Davis, were instrumental in the layout of the cemetery grounds.</p><br>
<p>The Evergreens has a monument to six victims of the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire of March 25, 1911 who were unidentified for nearly a century. In 2011, Michael Hirsch, a historian, completed four years of research that identified these victims by name (see Group monument, below).</p><br>
<p>There are also 17 British Commonwealth service personnel buried in the cemetery, 13 from World War I and 4 from World War II.</p><br>
<p>The cemetery was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on November 15, 2007. Cypress Hills Cemetery lies to its northwest.</p><br>
<h2>Notable burials</h2><br>
<h3>Individual graves</h3><br>
<p>John Bunny (1863–1915), actor</p><br>
<p>Anthony Comstock (1844–1915), censor (see Comstock Law)</p><br>
<p>Bill Dahlen (1870–1950), Major League Baseball player, one of the outstanding early 20th century players. Lies in an unmarked grave.</p><br>
<p>James E. Davis (1962–2003), New York City councilman (he was originally interred in Green-Wood Cemetery, but after it was realized that his assassin was also interred there, he was moved to the Cemetery of the Evergreens)</p><br>
<p>Effie Germon (1845–1914), Stage actress descended from the Germons of Baltimore, an old theatrical family</p><br>
<p>John D. Germon (1840–1901, Stage actor descended from the Germons of Baltimore, an old theatrical family; brother of Effie Germon</p><br>
<p>Adelaide Hall (1901–1993), singer, actress, dancer, nightclub chanteuse</p><br>
<p>George Hall (1849–1923), Major League Baseball player, banned from baseball for life</p><br>
<p>Yusef Hawkins (1973–1989), murder victim</p><br>
<p>Martin Johnson Heade (1819–1904), artist</p><br>
<p>Lucille Hegamin (1894–1970), singer, female pioneer of the Blues</p><br>
<p>William Hickey (1927–1997), actor</p><br>
<p>Joseph Forsyth Johnson (1840–1906), landscape architect and great-grandfather of Bruce Forsyth</p><br>
<p>Walt Kelly (1913–1973), cartoonist</p><br>
<p>George H. Lindsay (1837–1916), congressman</p><br>
<p>George W. Lindsay (1865–1938), congressman, his son</p><br>
<p>Winsor McCay (1872–1934), cartoonist and animated cartoon pioneer</p><br>
<p>Antonio "Tony" Pastor (1837–1908), vaudevillian</p><br>
<p>Julia Smitten Reinhardt (1844–1924), stage actress and suffragist</p><br>
<p>Sante Righini (1883–1912), died on the Titanic</p><br>
<p>Bill "Bojangles" Robinson (1878–1949), tap dancer</p><br>
<p>Stephen A. Rudd (1874–1936), congressman</p><br>
<p>Joseph Thuma Schenck (c. 1891–1930), vaudevillian, better known as "Joe" Schenck, of the comedy singing team Van and Schenck</p><br>
<p>William Steinitz (1836–1900), world chess champion</p><br>
<p>Bob Thiele (1922–1996), record producer</p><br>
<p>Amy Vanderbilt (1908–1974), journalist, etiquette authority</p><br>
<p>Oscar Walker (1854–1889), Major League Baseball player</p><br>
<p>John William Warde (c.1912–1938), his widely publicized suicide inspired the movie Fourteen Hours.</p><br>
<p>Thomas "Blind Tom" Wiggins (1849–1908), musician</p><br>
<p>Lester Young (1909–1959), jazz musician</p><br>
<h3>Group monument</h3><br>
<p>Triangle Shirtwaist fire – the bodies of six victims of the 1911 fire to be identified were buried under a monument of a kneeling woman. They could not be identified after the inferno because they were burned beyond recognition, and had been buried without names. A century after the tragedy, in 2011, they were identified by historian Michael Hirsch as Maria Giuseppa Lauletti, Max Florin, Concetta Prestifilippo, Josephine Cammarata, Dora Evans, and Fannie Rosen.</p><br>
<p>Rideau Hall  is, since 1867, the official residence in Ottawa of both the Canadian monarch and his or her representative, the Governor General of Canada. It stands in Canadas capital on a 0.36 km  estate at 1 Sussex Drive, with the main building consisting of approximately 175 rooms across 9,500 m , and 27 outbuildings around the grounds. Rideau Halls site lies outside the centre of Ottawa, giving it the character of a private home.</p><br>
<p>Most of Rideau Hall is used for state affairs, only 500 m (5,400 sq ft) of its area being dedicated to private living quarters, while additional areas serve as the offices of the Canadian Heraldic Authority and the principal workplace of the governor general and his or her staff; either the term Rideau Hall, as a metonym, or the formal idiom Government House is employed to refer to this bureaucratic branch. Officially received at the palace are foreign heads of state, both incoming and outgoing ambassadors and high commissioners to Canada, and Canadian Crown ministers for audiences with either the viceroy or the sovereign, should the latter be in residence. Rideau Hall is likewise the location of many Canadian award presentations and investitures, where prime ministers and other members of the federal Cabinet are sworn in, and where federal writs of election are dropped, among other ceremonial and constitutional functions.</p><br>
<p>Rideau Hall and the surrounding grounds were designated as a National Historic Site of Canada in 1977. The house is open to the public for guided tours throughout the year; approximately 200,000 visitors tour Rideau Hall annually.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>McKay villa</h3><br>
<p>The site of Rideau Hall and the original structure were chosen and built by stonemason Thomas McKay, who immigrated from Perth, Scotland, to Montreal, Lower Canada, in 1817 and later became the main contractor involved in the construction of the Rideau Canal. Following the completion of the canal, McKay built mills at Rideau Falls, making him the founder of New Edinburgh, the original settlement of Ottawa. With his newly acquired wealth, McKay purchased the 100 acre site overlooking both the Ottawa and Rideau Rivers and built a stone villa where he and his family lived until 1855 and which became the root of the present day Rideau Hall. Locals referred to the structure as McKay&#39;s Castle.</p><br>
<p>Even before the building became a royal residence, the hall received noted visitors, including three Governors General of the Province of Canada: the Lord Sydenham, the Earl of Elgin, and Sir Edmund Head. It was said that the watercolours of Barrack Hill (now Parliament Hill) painted by the latter governor&#39;s wife, Lady Head, while she was visiting Rideau Hall, had influenced Queen Victoria to choose Bytown (now Ottawa) as the national capital. Also, on 2 September 1860, the day after he laid the cornerstone of the parliament buildings, Prince Edward, Prince of Wales (later King Edward VII), drove through the grounds of Rideau Hall as part of his tour of the region.</p><br>
<h3>Royal and viceroyal home</h3><br>
<p>In 1864, after Bytown was chosen as the new capital of the Province of Canada, Rideau Hall was leased by the Crown from the McKay family for $4,000 per year and was intended to serve only as a temporary home for the viceroy until a proper government house could be constructed. The next year, Frederick Preston Rubidge oversaw the refinishing of the original villa and designed additions to accommodate the new functions. It was enlarged to three or four times the original size, mostly by way of a new 49 room wing, and, once complete, the first Governor General of Canada, the Viscount Monck, took residence. These additions were opposed by George Brown, who claimed that "the governor generals residence is a miserable little house, and the grounds those of an ambitious country squire." Prime Minister John A. Macdonald agreed, complaining that more had been spent on patching up Rideau Hall than could have been used to construct a new royal palace. Nonetheless, the gatehouse was enhanced by Rubidge and the entire property purchased outright in 1868 for the sum of $82,000. Thereafter, the house became the social centre of Ottawa—even Canada—hosting foreign visitors (the first being Grand Duke Alexis, son of Tsar Alexander II), investitures, swearing-in ceremonies, balls, dinners, garden parties, childrens parties, and theatrical productions in the ballroom (initiated by the Earl and Countess of Dufferin), in which members of the household and viceregal family would participate. Probably the largest event held in the ballroom was a fancy dress ball hosted by the Dufferins that took place on the evening of 23 February 1876 and which saw approximately 1,500 guests attending.</p><br>
<p>Still, despite the popularity of the events that took place in the building, negative first impressions of Rideau Hall itself were a theme until the early part of the 20th century. Upon arrival there in 1872, the Countess of Dufferin said in her journal: "We have been so very enthusiastic about everything hitherto that the first sight of Rideau Hall did lower our spirits just a little!" In 1893, Lady Stanley, wife of Governor General the Lord Stanley of Preston, said "you will find the furniture in the rooms very old-fashioned & not very pretty... The red drawing room... had no furniture except chairs & tables... The walls are absolutely bare... The room which has always been the wife of the G.G.&#39;s sitting room is very empty... There are no lamps in the house at all. No cushions, no table cloths, in fact none of the small things that make a room pretty & comfortable." Echoing these earlier comments, the Marchioness of Aberdeen and Temair said upon her departure from Ottawa that Rideau Hall was a "shabby old Government House put away amongst its clump of bushes..."</p><br>
<p>Various improvements were undertaken over the decades, seeing the first gas chandeliers and a telegraph wire put in, as well as the construction of the ballroom in the same year. By the time Rideau Hall was to live up to its role as a royal home, when its first royal residents—the Marquess of Lorne and his wife, Princess Louise—moved in at the beginning of 1878, many upgrades had been completed. Lorne stated of the hall: "Here we are settling down in this big and comfortable House, which I tell Louise is much superior to Kensington, for the walls are thick, the rooms are lathed and plastered (which they are not at Kensington) and there is an abundant supply of heat and light." The Princess was not long in Rideau Hall before Fenians posed themselves as a threat to her life and she was ushered back to the UK for both rest and protection. When she returned in 1880, with the Queen greatly concerned for her daughter&#39;s safety, it was felt necessary to post extra guards around the grounds of the hall.</p><br>
<p>Thereafter, members of the Royal Family would stay periodically at Rideau Hall, if not as governor general then as guests of the Crown, so that the palace played host to Prince Leopold (later also Duke of Albany) in 1880; Prince George (later King George V) in 1882, 1901, and 1908; Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught, and Princess Louise, Duchess of Connaught (later also the Duke and Duchess of Strathearn), in 1890 and as the viceregal couple from 1906 to 1912; Princess Louise in 1900; Princess Patricia with her parents from 1906 to 1912; Prince Albert (later King George VI) in 1910 and 1913; Edward, Prince of Wales (later King Edward VIII), in 1919, 1923, 1924, and 1927; Prince George (later also Duke of Kent) in 1926 and 1927; and Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester, in 1929.</p><br>
<h3>Through the Second World War</h3><br>
<p>When King George VI and his consort, Queen Elizabeth, arrived at Rideau Hall on 19 May 1939, during their first royal tour of Canada, official royal tour historian Gustave Lanctot stated: "When Their Majesties walked into their Canadian residence, the Statute of Westminster had assumed full reality: the King of Canada had come home." The King, while there, became the first monarch of Canada to personally receive the credentials of an ambassador, that being Daniel Calhoun Roper as the representative of the United States. It was thought for a time, after the outbreak of the Second World War, that the King, Queen, and their two daughters—Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret—would move permanently to Canada for the duration of the conflict in Europe; though, Hatley Castle, in Colwood, British Columbia, was purchased by the King in Right of Canada for this purpose, instead of using Rideau Hall. However, it was decided that the Royal Family leaving the United Kingdom at a time of war would be a major blow to morale and they remained in Britain.</p><br>
<p>During the war, the palace became the home in exile of a number of royals displaced by the invasions of their respective countries back in Europe. Among the royal guests were Crown Prince Olav (later King Olav V) and Crown Princess Märtha of Norway, Grand Duchess Charlotte and Prince Felix of Luxembourg, King Peter II of Yugoslavia, King George II of Greece, Empress Zita of Austria and her daughters, as well as Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands, her daughter, Princess Juliana (later Queen Juliana), and granddaughters, Princesses Beatrix (later Queen Beatrix) and Margriet. Though the resident governor generals wife, Princess Alice, Countess of Athlone, could do little to add her personal touch to Rideau Hall, due to rationing and scarce supplies, she put many of the other royal ladies to work making clothing for those who had lost their homes in the Blitz. It was then in 1940 that the governor generals office in the East Block of Parliament Hill was closed and moved to Rideau Hall and, in December of the following year, Winston Churchill arrived at the hall, where he presided over British Cabinet meetings via telephone from his bed.</p><br>
<p>At the end of the global war, the first peacetime ball at Rideau Hall was held for President of the United States Dwight D. Eisenhower, after which life within the household returned to normal. The transition from war to peace was marked by the appointment as governor general of the Viscount Alexander, whose son, Brian, reportedly used the portraits of former governors general throughout the hall as targets for his water pistol. During Alexanders tenure, Government Houses first post-war Canadian royal visitors were the heiress presumptive to the throne, Princess Elizabeth, Duchess of Edinburgh (later Queen Elizabeth II), and her husband, Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, who came in late 1951 and, amongst other activities, took part in a square dance in the ballroom (replete with checked shirts). Churchill, once again Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, returned to Rideau Hall in January of the next year, where, sprawled on a sofa with a cigar in one hand and a brandy in the other, he persuaded Alexander to join the British Cabinet.</p><br>
<h3>Canadian viceregal residents</h3><br>
<p>With the death of the King only a month following Churchill&#39;s 1952 visit, the front of Rideau Hall was covered with black bunting as a sign of mourning. As one of his last acts as king of Canada, George VI appointed Vincent Massey as not only the first Canadian-born viceregal resident of his Canadian home, but also the first who was single, with Massey having been widowed two years prior to his installation; his daughter-in-law, Lilias, thus acted as Chatelaine of Rideau Hall. Massey spoke of Rideau Hall as "a piece of architecture that might be regarded as possessing a certain lovable eccentricity," in spite of "some of the most regrettable pieces of furniture I have ever seen."</p><br>
<p>The number of formal occasions at Rideau Hall increased through the 1950s and 1960s, as Canadas diplomatic corps increased and the country gained greater international standing; visitors during Masseys tenure included Queen Juliana, President Eisenhower, Emperor Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia, Jawaharlal Nehru, and the presidents of Germany, Italy, and Indonesia. With the greater ease of travel, more members of Canadas royal family visited as well, including the Queen Mother; Princess Mary, Princess Royal; Katharine, Duchess of Kent; Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon; Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh; and, in 1957, Elizabeth was again in residence, though for the first time as queen. The Queen also stayed in her Ottawa government house and held audience with an influx of 53 foreign heads of state and government during Expo 67, held in Montreal, and Canadas centennial celebrations.</p><br>
<p>However, darker days fell on Rideau Hall during the October Crisis of 1970, when, under threat from the Front de libération du Québec, who had planted bombs and conducted kidnappings in Quebec, the palace was heavily guarded for a number of weeks. The relatively free access to the grounds, which had been traditionally allowed since 1921 and enjoyed by tourists and local neighbours alike, ceased during Jeanne Sauvés time as governor general; access was requested only through invitation, appointment, or pre-arranged tours on certain days. The decision to do so was based on concerns expressed by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police and the National Capital Commission for the security of the vicereine and brought Rideau Hall in line with other official residences, including 24 Sussex Drive and Buckingham Palace, that did not allow public access. However, Sauvé was reported to have also been personally worried about her safety, saying: "Im worried about those crazy men out there." This caused controversy not only because Sauvé had contradicted her earlier statement about Rideau Hall, wherein she said: "oh yes, definitely, it has to be open," but also because it denied Ottawa residents the use of the grounds. One group formed under the name Canada Unlock the Gate Group and asserted the closure was more due to Sauvés selfish desire for privacy than any real security risks; The Globe and Mail reported in 1986 that the group planned to boycott the Governor Generals annual garden party because of what they called her "bunker mentality". Sauvé&#39;s successor, Ray Hnatyshyn, reopened Government House and its gardens to the public. Sauvé also entertained a plan suggested by management consultants Price Waterhouse to move from Rideau Hall into Rideau Cottage, both for privacy and cost savings.</p><br>
<p>The hall was designated as a classified heritage property by the Federal Heritage Buildings Review Office in 1986, giving it the highest heritage significance in Canada.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The name Rideau Hall was chosen by Thomas McKay for his villa, drawing inspiration from the Rideau Canal which he had helped construct, though the house was also known colloquially as McKay&#39;s Castle. Once the house became the official residence of the governor general, it was termed formally as Government House. But, Rideau Hall stuck as the informal name and the existence of two names for the building led to some issue: in 1889 the viceregal consort, the Lady Stanley of Preston, was rebuked by Queen Victoria for calling the house Rideau Hall; it was to be Government House, as in all other Empire capitals. Today, however, Rideau Hall is the commonly accepted term for the house, with Government House remaining only in use for very formal or legal affairs; for example, royal proclamations will finish with the phrase: "At Our Government House, in Our City of Ottawa..."</p><br>
<h2>Function</h2><br>
<p>Rideau Halls main purpose is to house the offices of the Governor General of Canada and his or her household, including the Canadian Heraldic Authority. It is also the Ottawa residence of Canadas monarch. Some 200 events are held at Rideau Hall every year, most being Canadian award presentations and investitures. Additionally, the palace is where prime ministers and other members of the federal Cabinet are sworn-in and federal writs of election are dropped, among other constitutional functions of the governor general. Heads of state, both incoming and outgoing ambassadors and high commissioners to Canada, and Canadian Crown ministers and loyal opposition leaders are received at Rideau Hall for audiences with either the viceroy or the sovereign, should the latter be in residence.</p><br>
<p>The residence is also open to the public, running a visitors program and free tours of the state rooms throughout the year, as well as educational tours for students; it is the only one of the six official residences in the National Capital Region that is publicly accessible. A visitors centre is located on the grounds, adjacent to the main gate. Rideau Hall takes part annually in Doors Open Ottawa and children may trick-or-treat at the house each Hallowe&#39;en.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The original 1838 structure was relatively small; only two storeys tall with a full-height, central, curved bay, and an accordingly curved pediment on top, the villa was designed by Thomas McKay (who had also designed and built Earnscliffe) in a Regency style, inspired by the work of architect Sir John Soane, who had himself designed a never realised government house for the then capital of Upper Canada, York, in 1818. Unlike the present arrangement, the rooms of the McKay villa for entertaining, sleeping, and service were dispersed throughout the two floors of the structure, with the main parlour located on the second level, in an oval room behind the curved, south bay, which National Capital Commission Chief Architect David Scarlett said in 2014 was made in such a shape so as to display the advanced abilities of McKays stonemasons. The main entrance to the house was on the west side and opened into a hall with stairs to the upper floor directly ahead. Along the south front were a library, a dining room, and a boudoir, all with French doors opening onto a narrow balcony; the dining room was served by three of these doors, one of which now opens into the Tent Rooms antechamber, one into the Long Gallery, and one that still opens to the outside. The French door originally opening from the boudoir is today the window of the Pauline Vanier Room.</p><br>
<p>Initially rented from the McKay family as a temporary accommodation for the Canadian viceroy, the house has since been expanded numerous times. The Viscount Monck oversaw the first addition to the villa in 1865: a long wing extending to the east and built in a style that, while attempting to be harmonious with the original, was intended to resemble the governor general&#39;s residence in Quebec, Spencer Wood, which Monck greatly preferred over Rideau Hall. The extension was thus done in an overall Norman style of design that was typical in Quebec at the time, and had a similar long, covered verandah,</p><br>
<p>In 1872, during the tenure of the Earl of Dufferin, the indoor tennis court and the ballroom were added to the western end of the house, arranged to the south and north, respectively, of the main entrance. The ballroom is a structure of heavy timber framing with brick infill and finished stone exterior. Then, when the Earl of Minto arrived in 1898 with his large family and household, the Minto Wing was constructed on the east end of Rideau Hall and was completed in the following year, though this was again intended to only be a temporary measure until a proper government house could be built. Mintos successor, the Earl Grey, added the governor generals study to the far east end of the Monck Wing, thus symmetrically balancing out the curved bay and pediment of the original McKay villa to the west.</p><br>
<p>One of the greatest alterations to the form of Rideau Hall came in 1913, with the construction of the Mappin Block as a link between the ballroom and Tent Room, along with a re-facing of the two latter structures to harmonise their windows, cornice heights, and cladding (in a limestone ashlar), all in an "adapted Florentine architectural style" designed by Chief Dominion Architect David Ewart. The block is three storeys in height, and its front is divided by pilasters into five bays, with the central one slightly wider than the equal other four. The windows on the main floor are each surrounded by smaller pilasters beneath a triangular pediment formed by keel moulding geisons, while the second level windows are each simply framed by astragal moulding broken at the top by a keystone. A heavy entablature separates the second and third levels, atop which sits less pronounced pilasters and simply framed windows, with the entire facade capped by a narrow cornice and a pediment with a tympanum that bears a bas relief of the Royal Arms of the United Kingdom (believed to be the largest rendition in the Commonwealth). For formal arrivals at the main door, later called the Queen&#39;s Entrance, this addition also included a porte-cochère with three arched openings, the centre one topped with a carved stone rendition of the shield of the Royal Arms of Canada as it appeared between 1868 and 1921. All the arches can be fitted during the winter with fanlights and glass doors to provide an enclosed space in which to exit cars. Further projects that were completed by 1914 were the addition in 1912 of the Long Gallery to the east of the Tent Room, and the enlargement of the State Dining Room.</p><br>
<p>An accessible entrance—opened by Anne, Princess Royal, and named after her—was added in 1982 and the Minto Wing was eventually converted from residences to offices. Then, at the prompting of Governor General Michaëlle Jean, the main facade of Rideau Hall underwent a major renovation through 2006 and 2007, overseen by the National Capital Commission, which has been responsible for the maintenance and upkeep of the building and its grounds since 1986. Masonry was treated and restored, the original sash windows rehabilitated and stripped of their lead paint, and the copper roof of the Mappin Wing was repaired. This was the first time any considerable work had been done on the front façade since the 1960s. A project began in 2012 to replace the buildings climate control system—consisting of three large external chillers and multiple window-mounted air conditioners—with a geothermal heating and cooling system, expected to supply approximately half of the buildings heating requirements during winter, until the geothermal system is expanded in future.</p><br>
<h2>Art and decoration</h2><br>
<p>Rideau Hall has long been a collection point for Canadian art and cabinetry. As early as the first viceregal inhabitants, the hall has held pieces by prominent Canadian cabinet makers, such as Jaques & Hay of Toronto, James Thompson of Montreal, and William Drum of Quebec. Originally, the interior decoration was heavily Victorian, with many Rococo influences. Renovations, however, have turned the interiors into predominantly Georgian spaces, with Adam and Palladian elements. Until the 1960s, the contents and colours of the house changed with each successive royal and viceroyal family; the consort typically seeing it as her duty to update Rideau Hall to suit both her personal and contemporary tastes. As there were few paintings in the palace&#39;s permanent collection, the National Gallery would provide works on loan; a relationship that continues into the present.</p><br>
<p>Today the rooms are furnished both with elements from the history of the residence as well as art and other objects that showcase contemporary Canadian culture, including pieces by the Group of Sevens Lawren Harris, Emily Carr, Jean Paul Lemieux, and Bill Reid. The Long Gallerys Chinoiserie decoration was restored in 1993 at the direction of Gerda Hnatyshyn, wife of Governor General Ray Hnatyshyn, putting back much of the furniture and artifacts that had been collected by the Machioness of Willingdon throughout her tour of China in 1926. The space, used to greet and host functions for ambassadors and high commissioners to Canada, now contains five carpets donated by the Hongkong and Shanghai Bank and a Steinway & Sons baby grand piano that belonged to Glenn Gould. Other consorts left their mark on Rideau Hall, such as Princess Louises painted apple branches on a 6-panel Georgian door in the first-floor corridor and Nora Micheners donated collection of Inuit sculpture.</p><br>
<p>Since Vincent Masseys time as governor general, the viceroy has worked closely with the Department of Public Works and Government Services in repairing and refurbishing Rideau Hall; the department now provides a more systematic approach to the maintenance of the palace, with a full-time building manager in charge of the project. The National Capital Commission is charged with the decoration of the rooms; since 2004 the commission has undertaken a project to restore many of the salons and other state rooms to the period in which they were first built. Many pieces—objets dart, paintings, sculptures, books, furnishings, and rugs—are drawn from the Crown Collection, so that, in Adrienne Clarkson&#39;s words, "the mix of furniture and other objects here now reflects the country, the people who came and settled here, and became part of the Canadian story."</p><br>
<h3>Centre block and Mappin Wing</h3><br>
<p>The sole remaining part of the original McKay villa is the reception room on the ground floor and the royal suite directly above. The former was created in 1913 by removing the interior partitions of the villa; the baseboards, mouldings, and trims date from that era. It is where small ceremonies and presentations take place, while the latter is an oval room that was previously the drawing room of the original McKay villa and was subsequently used as a ballroom, a studio, and a study before becoming the monarch&#39;s bedroom. Some signs of the McKay house are still visible, notably in the now blanked window on the north wall of the reception room and the ornate plaster ceiling in the royal suite.</p><br>
<p>Directly west of these rooms is the Edwardian Mappin Wing, which contains the entrance hall. Its walls are partly panelled, partly clad in marble; the lower floor covered in mosaic tile and the upper with wood. The two levels are connected by a wide, white marble, central stair; to each side, at the upper landing, are marble guards with ornate, Neoclassical balustrades. Across from the top of the stair is a door (to the reception room) flanked with wood panels documenting the names and escutcheons of each of the governors general for New France, British North America, and Canada. On the opposite wall, to the left of the entrance, is the Royal Window—a stained glass piece commemorating the 40th anniversary of the accession of Elizabeth II to the throne, displaying, between the Queens Canadian royal standard above and the Great Seal of Canada below, the monarchs coat of arms for Canada surrounded by the shields of each of the provincial coats of arms. Additionally, in the top two corners are images of Elizabeths royal cypher, balancing out representations of the Sovereigns badges for both the Order of Canada and the Order of Military Merit in the bottom two corners. Another stained glass window is found to the right of the entrance, marking the first appointment of a Canadian-born governor general; the viceregal position is symbolised by a crowned lion holding a maple leaf and surrounded by the shields of the arms of the first seven persons to hold the post. In 2012, bronze and glass handrails, funded by a private donation from Rouge Herald Extraordinary Roger Alexander Lindsay, were added to each side of the stair in commemoration of the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II.</p><br>
<p>Book-ending the Mappin Wing are the Tent Room—used for slightly less formal gatherings—and the ballroom—the centre of state life at Rideau Hall. It is in the latter space that honours and awards ceremonies take place, members of the Cabinet are sworn in, ambassadors present their diplomatic credentials, and large-scale state dinners are held; as such, it is the second most photographed and televised room in Canada, preceded only by the House of Commons. A double-height space, it is lined with tall, arched windows between rectangular pilasters that are topped with gilt, acanthused capitals. Cable moulding trim surrounds most of the openings and, around the perimeter of the room, at the intersection of walls and ceiling, is a deep and ornate plaster crown moulding formed by a godroon textured frieze and a heavy dentiled bed-mould between layers of talon and gorge mouldings. Above this is the Victorian, lacunar, clear span vaulted ceiling, from the centre of which hangs a Waterford Crystal chandelier, presented by the British government on Victoria Day in 1951 as a token of gratitude for Canadas role in World War II. Also, in an alcove to the south of the ballrooms main door is a stained glass window that celebrates the excellence of Canadian performing artists and the establishment of the Governor General&#39;s Performing Arts Awards.</p><br>
<p>The present decor in the ballroom—powder blue walls with beige marblised pilasters, cream trim, and shades of peach, cream, and Old Gold on the ceiling, all with gilt highlights—was implemented by Adrienne Clarkson when she served as the Queen&#39;s representative between 1999 and 2005. By stripping away a more monochrome palette that had been applied to the room in the 1970s, this restored the ballroom to a scheme closer to the original that was in place when the room was first completed in 1872.</p><br>
<p>The appearance of the Tent Room is drawn from the original use of striped fabric draped on the walls and hung in swaths from the ceiling in order to temporarily transform what was normally the tennis court into a dining hall. The room today has a wall covering of vertically sriped red and gold fabric with a padded backing, which rises to meet the same fabric hung in a swag fashion outwards from a single coffer in the centre of the ceiling and trimmed around the perimeter of the room with a scallop edged valence of simple passementerie and tassels. This gives the space an overall resemblance to the interior of a large tent. The west wall of the room is broken by series of windows, each paired with a double door into the Long Gallery on the opposite wall, and between them a continuous frame and panel wainscotting. All this woodwork, including the door frames and other trim, is painted in a gloss white to contrast with the textured and patterned wall fabric.</p><br>
<h3>Monck Wing</h3><br>
<p>Within the Monck Wing, built between 1865 and 1866, are other living quarters and drawing and dining rooms generally for non-state affairs, such as the Pauline Vanier Room, a small sitting room where informal meetings are held with visiting heads of state and other officials. The room was originally created in the 1960s by Pauline Vanier out of an old aide-de-camp smoking room, giving the space pine panelling and filling it with antique furnishings from Quebec. However, it was later again refurbished to remove the tongue and groove planks Vanier had installed and which were said to be reminiscent of suburban basement panelling popular in the 1970s. The Pauline Vanier Room today contains furniture and other cabinetry works by Canadian artisans.</p><br>
<p>For more formal gatherings both before and after state events, as well as for entertaining visiting heads of state and their party, the Large Drawing Room, on the south side of the Monck Wing, is used. Previously called the Red Salon, the space underwent thorough renovations in 1901, updating it to the Edwardian style that was popular at the time, giving it boiserie panelling formed from plaster mouldings, a layered crown moulding, as well as windows and doors with chambranled montants, the latter openings also equipped with moulded, classical overdoors. On the walls of the drawing room are hung portraits depicting the viceregal consorts of previous governors general. Directly across the hall from the Large Drawing Room is the State Dining Room, which is reserved for state dinners for visiting heads of state with smaller parties, with the table seating a maximum of 42 guests. in 1909, the dining room too was renovated to a similar Edwardian look, but its present day layout did not emerge until the late 1940s, after various subsequent renovations. The sterling silver sets on display in this room are on loan from Buckingham Palace.</p><br>
<p>The governor generals study sits at the far east end of the Monck Wings ground floor, next to another study allocated for the viceroys consort. The former is panelled in carved wood that was installed when the room was constructed in 1906, with the names of each governor general applied in succession around the room, below the dado rail and a rendition of the sovereigns arms for the United Kingdom as a focal piece above the fireplace (reflecting the era in which the room was fitted). When the prime minister arrives for an audience with the governor in the latters study, he or she uses the dedicated Prime Ministers Entrance, which sits on the north side of the Monck addition, and opens into the east-most of the wings two staircases, from which it is only a short walk to the viceroys office. Across from the study, the library contains a complete collection of Governor Generals Literary Award winning works. This room began as a bedroom for Lady Monck, later becoming the governor generals office, a boudoir, the military secretary&#39;s office, a smoking room, a flower room, and a card room, before being assigned its current role in 1952.</p><br>
<p>Further, the Monck Wing houses another, smaller drawing room and a billiard room. The viceregal suite, consisting of a study/living room, a large bedroom, and a kitchenette, is at the far west end of the upper floor. Also on the second level is the royal suite (the bedroom being the former parlour of the McKay villa) and the other guest bedrooms, each being named for a former British governor. The descendants of these men were approached in the 1990s with a request for donations of historical memorabilia, to which, amongst others, the Devonshires—relations of the ninth Duke of Devonshire—responded with a Regency mirror that had been used at Chatsworth House. On that floor is also a chapel, installed during the Michener period, and which was made ecumenical and opened on 2 July 1967, in the presence of Queen Elizabeth II, for both Anglican and Roman Catholic services.</p><br>
<h3>Art</h3><br>
<p>Originally, most of the art in Rideau Hall was the personal property of the incumbent governor general and, as with much of the furnishings, was removed upon the end of the viceroy&#39;s commission. Starting in the 20th century, however, more and more pieces were added to the dedicated Crown Collection for Government House, either through gifts or purchases; for instance, in 1946, Sir James Dunn presented the Crown with two paintings by Johann Zoffany. Today the collection of furnishing, art, and artifacts at Rideau Hall is composed of private gifts from the Canada Fund (a foundation created by the government of Canada) and the Friends of Rideau Hall. The pieces, though predominantly Canadian in origin, also represent the Far East, Europe, and other regions, and can be arranged thematically, such as the Asian influenced pieces in the Long Gallery, the portraits of Canadian governors general in the reception room.</p><br>
<p>The Crown Collection works on display are also usually augmented with approximately 100 art pieces and antiques on loan from various museums, galleries, and private collections; this continues a tradition started in the 1930s, when the National Gallery lent pieces to the viceroy at the time, the Earl of Bessborough. the portrait by Jean Paul Lemieux of Queen Elizabeth II and the Duke of Edinburgh that had for decades dominated the focal wall of the ballroom was shifted to the rear wall, thereby bumping the copy of George Hayters state portrait of Queen Victoria that had hung there to the Tent Room, where the portraits of Canadas British governors general had been collected together. These moves and removals were criticised by the editorial board of the National Post, as well as other journalists, as having "demoted and ghettoized" history in order to "siphon off the great symbolic power of the monarchy, to further particular tastes and agendas," noting that Rideau Hall should not be used "primarily an art gallery."</p><br>
<h2>Grounds</h2><br>
<p>Rideau Hall&#39;s 0.36 km (88 acre) property is surrounded by a 2,500 m (7,700 ft) long Victorian cast iron and cast stone fence put up in 1928 and contains uniquely Canadian landscapes designed in the natural style, including broad lawns, groves of trees, and meandering roads and pathways. The entire site is divided into five distinct areas: the wooded entrance park (trees, groundcover, daffodils, and lawn), the open parkland (meadow), the sugar bush, the ornamental gardens, and the farm (out-buildings and open area). The last once included a herd of cattle and fields used to grow hay, but today the only remaining agricultural ventures are the working vegetable and herb gardens that have been present on the site since the time of the McKay family. From these fields, plants, fruits, and edible flowers are used in the palace kitchens, and a greenhouse and flower garden provide flowers for the hall and other government buildings in Ottawa. Further, during the early spring months, the maples throughout the property are tapped for syrup making. In total, more than 10,000 trees grow on the grounds. Additionally, there is a one kilometer long honorary segment of the Trans Canada Trail on the property.</p><br>
<p>As with the house that sits on them, the grounds too were transformed throughout the decades: Lady Byng created the existing rock garden, with a reflecting pool and wild corner for growing trilliums and orchids; a totem pole by Kwakiutl carver Mungo Martin was gifted to the Earl Alexander of Tunis by the Lieutenant Governor of British Columbia-in-Council; the Fountain of Hope was initiated by Gerda Hnatyshyn to mark the International Year of Disabled Persons, built in front of Rideau Hall, and dedicated to Terry Fox; and an inukshuk by artist Kananginak Pootoogook, from Cape Dorset, Nunavut, was built to commemorate the second National Aboriginal Day, in 1997. The Canadian Heritage Garden is a formal rose garden championed by Gerda Hnatyshyn and constructed to mark the 125th anniversary of Confederation. Also, each member of the Royal Family or visiting dignitary to Rideau Hall is asked to plant a tree; as such, the park, mostly along the main drive, is dotted with nearly 100 trees with small plaques at their bases listing the name and office of the person who planted each particular tree. These include Queen Elizabeth, the Queen Mother; Diana, Princess of Wales; Prince Charles, Prince of Wales; King George VI; and numerous by Queen Elizabeth II. Foreign dignitaries who have planted trees include John F. Kennedy, Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis, Richard Nixon, Bill Clinton, Kofi Annan, Boris Yeltsin, Vladimir Putin, Vicente Fox, and Emperor Akihito.</p><br>
<p>Throughout their history as a royal park, the gardens have hosted numerous activities and events. The earliest governors general added amenities such as a curling rink, a skating pond (which remains in operation, making it one of the oldest rinks in North America), toboggan runs, tennis courts, and the like, and many of the guests at Rideau Hall would partake in these outdoor activities, including prime ministers William Lyon Mackenzie King and Robert Borden, who would often skate on the iced over pond with the viceregal family. Of the tobogganing, Lieutenant William Galwey, a member of the survey team that laid out the Canada–United States border and later visited Rideau Hall in November 1871, said: "It is a most favourite amusement at Government House. Ladies go in for it. I think they like rolling over and over with the gentlemen."</p><br>
<p>The grounds of Rideau Hall have been open to the public since 1921, when the Lord Byng of Vimys aide-de-camp resolved to open Government House to "all who had a right to be there," a move that outraged the traditionalists. Today an expanded visitors centre has been established to facilitate tours. Further, garden parties are held by the viceroy in the summer months, continuing the tradition started by the Lord Lisgar in 1869, and each year the governor general holds a New Years Levée, an event that traces its roots back to the French royal government and which welcomes guests from the public to attend and participate in skating, sledding, and refreshments. The park also hosts the Rideau Hall Cricket Association and Ottawa Valley Cricket Council, which continues the tradition of cricket being played in the royal residences gardens, beginning when the cricket pitch was laid out by the Viscount Monck in 1866. Matches continue to be played at the hall during summer weekends.</p><br>
<h3>Other structures</h3><br>
<p>Other than Rideau Hall itself, there are 27 buildings around the property, including Rideau Cottage (currently serving as a temporary official home for the Prime Minister and his family), offices for the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, National Capital Commission, and Public Works and Government Services Canada, the Governor Generals Foot Guards house, the Gasometer or Dome Building (Rideau Hall offices), the visitors&#39; centre, the Farm Building, and stables. Additionally, there are six greenhouses.</p><br>
<p>Though not on the grounds of Rideau Hall, St. Bartholomews Anglican Church is located across MacKay Street on property once belonging to the MacKay Villa estate. It is regularly used by governors general and their families and sometimes by the sovereign and other members of the Canadian Royal Family, as well as by viceregal household staff, their families, and members of the Governor Generals Foot Guards, for whom the church also serves as a regimental chapel. Also nearby is 7 Rideau Gate, which is a guesthouse for distinguished visitors of the Crown situated just outside and facing onto the forecourt of the main gate of Rideau Hall.</p><br>
<p>Ishpatina Ridge is the highest point of land in the Canadian province of Ontario, at an estimated 693 m above sea level. Ishpatina Ridge rises approximately 300 m above the immediate area. It was only truly recognized as Ontario&#39;s highest point after federal government topographical mapping revealed this fact in the 1970s. Before then, the more popular Maple Mountain was thought to be higher.</p><br>
<p>The ridge lies in Lady Evelyn-Smoothwater Provincial Park. Due to its remote location, Ishpatina Ridge is a challenge to reach. The closest major highway, Highway 560, is more than 30 km north. There are a few logging roads and trails in the remote area, but they are difficult to travel in poor weather. The most popular approach route to Ishpatina is by canoe/portage via a logging road to the south out of the town of Capreol north of Sudbury. While a northern route exists (out of Gowganda, the nearest community), there are numerous portages making it particularly onerous. This route has traditionally been used for a winter-time approach by ski/snowshoe. Historically, a fire tower atop the ridge was staffed by forest workers and they would have been ferried to the site by float plane.</p><br>
<p>The name "Ishpatina" comes from an Ojibwe language word ishpadinaa, meaning "high place/ridge". The city of Ishpeming, Michigan, in Marquette County, and Spadina Avenue in Toronto, Ontario derive their names from the same word.</p><br>
<p>Although the Ishpatina Ridge is the highest point in Ontario, at least one other geographic feature, Maple Mountain (approximately 25 km to the east) has greater prominence, 37 m higher than Ishpatina Ridge&#39;s rise over Scarecrow Lake.</p><br>
<p>An abandoned firetower, often referred to as the Ellis Tower, is still standing on the highest section of the Ridge (left). The original tower was an 80 ft structure erected in 1930. The successor, currently standing, is 100 ft high and was abandoned in the 1960s. The towerman would have resided in a cabin on the shore of Scarecrow Lake and would have hiked a 3.5 km trail daily taking approximately two hours to summit and a little over one hour to descend again.</p><br>
<p>Located between Tower Peak and the North Peak, the Ishpatina Canyon is one of the deepest in Ontario. The elevation of Tower Peak is 2274 feet, the bottom of the Canyon is at 1750 feet and the North Peak at 2250 feet above sea level. The canyon is nearly twice as deep as Ouimet Canyon, often considered Ontario&#39;s deepest. However, the more gradual descent into the canyon hides the fact.</p><br>
<p>The ridge was featured on an interactive web series called The Peakbaggers.</p><br>
<p>Koos is the largest of several small islands in the Bay of Greifswald, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany. It has an area of 772 hectares and a maximum elevation of just above three meters. The island is a largely uninhabited natural reserve with restricted access. It is separated from the mainland by Kooser Bucht and Kooser See, two bays connected by a tiny strait, Beek.</p><br>
<p>In 1241, Barnuta, prince of Rügen, granted Koos (then "Chosten") to Eldena abbey (then "Hilda"), later it became a possession of the Hanseatic town of Greifswald, located a few kilometers southward. A medieval burgh has been suggested on the isle, but not verified. A 17th-century Dutch settlement had disappeared in the 18th century. Koos is administered by the nearby town of Greifswald.</p><br>
<p>Jurong Island is an artificial island located to the southwest of the main island of Singapore, off Jurong Industrial Estate. It was formed from the amalgamation of seven offshore islands, the islands of Pulau Ayer Chawan, Pulau Ayer Merbau, Pulau Merlimau, Pulau Pesek, Pulau Pesek Kechil , Pulau Sakra , Pulau Seraya, Pulau Meskol, Pulau Mesemut Laut, Pulau Mesemut Darat and Anak Pulau. This was done through Singapores land reclamation efforts. Land reclamation on Jurong Island was completed on September 24, 2009, 20 years earlier than scheduled. Pulau Buaya was joined to Jurong Island via reclamation in 2010. Jurong Island forms a land area of about 32 km² from an initial area of less than 10 km², and is the largest of Singapores outlying islands.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The outlying islands of Pulau Ayer Chawan, Pulau Ayer Merbau, Pulau Merlimau and Pulau Seraya were used to house fishing communities comprising small villages up to the 1960s. The villagers lived in Malay-style wooden stilt houses on the palm-fringed islands. Between late-1960s and early-1970s, three big oil companies planned to house their facilities on Pulau Ayer Chawan for Esso, Pulau Merlimau for Singapore Refinery Company and Pulau Pesek for Mobil Oil.</p><br>
<p>The Government of Singapore then took the opportunity to grow the petrochemical industry as a choice that would significantly produce economic growth. This was proven by the success of starting off the petroleum industries in the 1970s.</p><br>
<p>By the 1980s, after a decade of rapid industrialisation, industrial land was growing scarce on Singapore mainland. The idea of joining the southern islands off Jurong to form one colossal island to create more industrial land was therefore conceived.</p><br>
<p>In 1991, JTC Corporation (formerly Jurong Town Corporation) was appointed the agent of the Jurong Island project. JTC planned and coordinated with various government agencies in providing the necessary infrastructure and services to the island.</p><br>
<p>Physical land reclamation began in 1995, and Jurong Island was officially opened on October 14, 2000 by then Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong. From the 9.91 km² land area of the original seven islets, as of completion of the land reclamation on September 25, 2009, Jurong Island currently has a total land area of 30 km². Penta-Ocean Construction was the major contractor and reclamation was completed 20 years ahead of schedule.</p><br>
<h2>Petrochemical industries</h2><br>
<p>Today, Jurong Island is home to many companies such as LANXESS, Afton Chemical, BASF, BP, Celanese, Evonik, ExxonMobil, DuPont, Mitsui Chemicals, Chevron Oronite, Shell, Singapore Petroleum Company Singapore Refinery Company, Petrochemical Complex of Singapore, The Polyolefin Company, Chervon Philips, Mitsui Elastomer and Sumitomo Chemical.</p><br>
<p>Clusters of gigantic cylindrical tanks amid a maze of pipelines now dot the island; investment totalled S$31 billion in 2010. Resident companies produce a vast range of items, from petroleum products to polycarbonate resins used in CDs, DVDs and LCD TV panels, and super-absorbent polymers that go into diapers and sanitary napkins.</p><br>
<p>ExxonMobil, which has invested S$4 billion in a refinery and cracker plant, makes industrial and automotive lubricants including a product used in Formula One racing cars. DuPont has invested S$1 billion, and manufactures Zytel nylon resin, a versatile engineering plastic used in automobile components, appliances, wire insulation, sporting gear and home furnishings. Afton Chemical is constructing a new manufacturing facility, expected to become operational in January 2016, to produce petroleum additives for the Asia-Pacific and Middle East markets.</p><br>
<p>Output for the chemicals cluster&mdash;which cover oil and gas, petrochemicals and speciality chemicals&mdash;totalled S$66.5 billion in 2005, an increase of 31 per cent from 2004. This accounted for almost 32 per cent of production in Singapores manufacturing sector. Powered by the cluster, Singapore is currently one of the worlds top three oil refining centres despite not having a single drop of crude deposits.</p><br>
<p>Jurong Island&#39;s refineries process 1,300,000 barrels of crude oil per day, turning it into petrol, kerosene and jet fuel sold locally and abroad. Cracker plants break down the molecules of other oil-and gas-related substances such as naphtha into additives that give unique characteristics to certain products, from printer inks to plastic mouldings, semiconductors and aircraft materials.</p><br>
<p>Apart from imported crude, natural gas from Indonesias West Natuna field arrives at Jurong Island via a 640 km undersea pipeline. Some of it is refined to provide a source of cleaner and cheaper fuel, while the rest is sent to crackers that make other petrochemical products. The countrys first refilling station for compressed natural gas (CNG) opened on Jurong Island in 2002. As most of the 2500+ cars running on CNG in Singapore are not allowed to enter the island because the drivers do not have the necessary security pass, four more CNG stations opened on the main island leading up to September 2009.</p><br>
<h2>Security</h2><br>
<p>Jurong Island was gazetted as a Protected Place since September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks (mostly in October 2001). Access control is contracted to a private security company, while the Singapore Army helps to protect the island.</p><br>
<p>Access to the island is limited to staff and visitors, and they are issued with security passes. Other security restrictions include that any photographic equipment brought to the island must be declared. Without permission from Island Security it is forbidden to take photographs or videos on Jurong Island. Anyone getting caught taking pictures or videos is handed over to the police, and subsequently has their the Jurong Island pass confiscated and their permission to enter Jurong Island revoked.</p><br>
<p>Jurong Island and the southwestern waters were to be used for Exercise Northstar 8 from 21 November to 25 November 2011. However, Exercise Northstar 8 was only carried out on 25 November 2011 after 4pm at Jurong Island, up to 7.30pm.</p><br>
<h2>Infrastructure</h2><br>
<p>Jurong Island has two fire stations, and an amenity centre known as Oasis@Sakra that houses a food court, a medical clinic and a free-of-charge multi-storey carpark. The island also houses the Pulau Seraya Power Station, Singapore&#39;s first offshore power station, which was built in phases on the former Pulau Seraya since 1986.</p><br>
<p>The island has a network of pipelines that allows for seamless integration among companies. For example, Japan&#39;s Teijin can make polycarbonates from chlorine piped in directly from CIFE and bisphenol A from Mitsui Chemicals elsewhere on the island. Red pipes carry water for firefighting and green pipes, sea water for cooling. Huge silver pipes carry steam and small silver pipes bring product lines.</p><br>
<p>There are two major cargo jetties on Jurong Island, namely Sakra Jetty and Banyan Jetty. Sakra Jetty is managed and controlled by ExxonMobil.</p><br>
<p>Jurong Island is linked to the main island by a 2.3 km causeway known as the Jurong Island Highway, opened in March 1999. Several public bus services run between Jurong Island and the mainland, operated by Woodlands Transport.</p><br>
<h2>Jurong Rock Caverns</h2><br>
<p>Construction work on Jurong Rock Caverns (JRC), Singapore&#39;s first underground rock caverns for storage of crude oil, condensates, naphtha and gas-oil, started in February 2007. JTC Corporation has been appointed by the Singapore government to undertake the construction of JRC.</p><br>
<p>Located beneath the seabed of Banyan Basin, off Jurong Island, JRC was completed in phases beginning in 2013, and was officially opened on Sept 2 2014. As a result of this first phase of work, the caverns reportedly have a storage capacity of 1.47 million cubic metres. Phase 2, which has the potential to add another 1.32 million cubic metres, is being explored.</p><br>
<h2>Plans</h2><br>
<p>To raise its competitive edge, Singapore is moving to produce higher-value-added speciality products, including chemicals that would go into animal vaccines, animal feeds, consumer care items such as cosmetics and industrial enzymes to support the biomedical sector. As part of this effort to move up the value chain, the Institute of Chemical and Engineering Science (an A*STAR research institute) has been set up on Jurong Island.</p><br>
<p>There have also been plans to build a second causeway to link the Western end of Jurong Island Highway with Gul Road in Jurong Industrial Estate on mainland Singapore, but these have been shelved. The investment earmarked for the second causeway has been re-allocated to the building of HDB flats at Western Water Catchment later in the decade.</p><br>
<p>The Harlem River is an 8 mi tidal strait flowing between the Hudson River and the East River and separating the island of Manhattan from the Bronx on the New York mainland.</p><br>
<p>The northern stretch, also called the Spuyten Duyvil ("spewing devil") Creek, has been significantly altered for navigation purposes. Originally it curved round the north of Marble Hill, but in 1895 the Harlem River Ship Canal was dug between Manhattan and Marble Hill, and in 1914 the original course was filled in.</p><br>
<h2>Geology and geography</h2><br>
<p>The Harlem River forms a part of the Hudson estuary system, serving as a narrow strait that divides the island of Manhattan from the Bronx. Approximately 18,000 years ago the Laurentide ice sheet receded northward across the continent leaving behind a large escarpment creating the modern day Hudson River. About 6,000 years ago the Hudson River emptied into the ancient Atlantic Ocean, depositing sediments over the bedrock; this resulted in the formation of the Hudson River estuary, which is the water and land at the mouth the river that contains a mixture of salt and freshwater, including the Harlem River.</p><br>
<p>The "river" is actually an estuary, as the Harlem River has neither a mouth nor a source, but instead connects two larger bodies of water, the Hudson River, via the Spuyten Duyvil Creek, to the East River &ndash; which is itself not a river, but a salt water tidal strait &ndash; at Randall’s Island, near 125th Street. The Harlem River is therefore affected by the actions of the ocean and neighboring waterways. The ebb and flow of the tides causes the Harlem River’s currents to fluctuate dramatically throughout the day. The effects of the tides have influenced the spread of silts, pollutants, and other particles in the water. The tides were also important in defining the usage of the Harlem River as they caused the currents to be particularly difficult to navigate in the northern portion of the waterway, allowing only smaller ships and experienced sailors. Stretching approximately 7 mi, the Harlem River originally meandered through its length, but its course today is much straighter than it was in its natural state due to changes in its route and shoreline character.</p><br>
<h3>Sherman Creek</h3><br>
<p>Sherman Creek is a small inlet off the Harlem River at 10th Avenue and Dyckman Street in Inwood ({{coord|40|51|36|N|73|55|18|W}}). Named for a family that settled there in 1807, it was once the site of a number of racing shell clubs&#39; boathouses along "sculler&#39;s row". The last, belonging to Fordham University, was lost to suspected arson in 1978.</p><br>
<p>As a name for the several blocks around it, Sherman Creek is something of a historical relic, although many regard it as a part of Washington Heights. The Manhattan Institute held a forum, "Saving Sherman Creek," in January 2006 at the Harvard Club of New York.</p><br>
<p>There has been an initiative among politicians over the last few years to re-zone this area for residential and commercial use, and to create public access to the waterfront. Currently, Con Ed and the City of New York own some of the property in this area.</p><br>
<p>In August 2017, a $100,000 project to restore the park&#39;s marsh and provide public waterfront space was announced. Pyramidal concrete structures known as "oyster castles" will be built that break the waves and allow oysters to grow on them. The resulting oyster reef then protects the marsh by absorbing waves, both natural ones and those created by the wakes of boats. The financing of the project, which will be undertaken by the New York Restoration Project, founded by Bette Midler, will be provided by the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, and was secured by State Senator Marisol Alcantara. The Sherman Creek restoration is a pilot project which is hoped will be put into effect to restore marshes along Inwood Hill Park and on Muscota Marsh.</p><br>
<h3>Spuyten Duyvil Creek</h3><br>
<p>Spuyten Duyvil Creek is a tidal estuary that begins at the Hudson River and flows south-eastward</p><br>
<p>Originally it went up, over, and around a Manhattan neighborhood known as Marble Hill before joining the Harlem River at its northernmost extreme. The channel was difficult to navigate, resulting in the construction of the Harlem River Ship Canal in 1895. This turned the watercourse west approximately where 222nd Street would be in the Bronx, which had the effect of isolating Marble Hill.</p><br>
<p>Almost two decades later, the original creekbed was filled in, physically attaching Marble Hill to the Bronx, though it remains part of the borough of Manhattan.</p><br>
<p>Another channel was dug in 1937 to the west of the 1895 realignment straightening the Spuyten Duyvil towards the Hudson. It pared off a protruding tip of the Bronx, which was absorbed into Manhattan&#39;s Inwood Hill Park, home today to its Nature Center.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Early colonial developments</h3><br>
<p>The landmass of Marble Hill once provided a fine location for Native American encampments, where fertile soil, shelter by hills to the west, and the abundance of fishing and “oystering” options nearby were found. By the end of the 17th century most land along the “Harlaem River” had come under the ownership of the Dutch families whose names are now commonly seen on street signs, area maps, and parks, including Jonas Dyckman, Jacob Nagle, etc. The British Colonial authorities, however, eventually wrested control of the island from the Dutch, and regulation of waterfront construction became the responsibility of the city; this preceded any formal attempts to standardize shoreline expansion by nearly a century.</p><br>
<p>It was in this era that the first crossing on the Harlem was built, at the Old Albany Road (north of Marble Hill) in 1693, beginning a long history of bridge construction and physical alterations to the river. This came to be called King’s Bridge, where a toll was assessed for access to the island and lands south. While this crossing was intended to replace the ferry service provided in the same area from approximately 1669 onward, the local population eventually bridled over the toll, and popular sentiment culminated in the construction of the “Farmers’ Free Bridge” further south along the Spuyten Duyvil Creek in 1758. The shallow waters of the creek along this stretch were thus spanned.</p><br>
<h3>19th century</h3><br>
<h4>River navigation</h4><br>
<p>The issue of navigability became a topic of controversy early in the river’s history. In 1813, the Macomb family built a dam to power a mill; however it created a millpond and impeded the river’s flow and open navigation. While this condition was tolerated for several years, a vessel manned by principal landholders and politicians, including Gouverneur and Lewis Morris, formally challenged the obstruction in 1838. Legal battles over the legitimacy of the right to obstruct the waterway ensued. Ultimately, the testimony of numerous local residents, who used the river in transporting lumber, fuel, raw materials and produce to and from their estates, up and down the Harlem, helped persuade the courts to rule favorably for unimpeded access to the river’s navigable waters.</p><br>
<p>Consequently, bridge designs thereafter needed to factor in the rights of waterborne traffic to pass freely, an issue that instigated dissent in the future with regards to the efficiency of movable river crossings and the needs of the railroads. The issue of navigability gained urgency with the opening of the Erie Canal in 1825, spurring intense commercialization of the West Side waterfront on the Hudson River as well as interest in creating a faster route to the East River and the Long Island Sound beyond.</p><br>
<h4>Croton Aqueduct and High Bridge</h4><br>
<p>For the first half of the 19th century, the Harlem River basin had remained relatively unaffected by the commercial growth commonplace along the island’s distant southern waterfront. However, public health issues concerning access to water for the burgeoning population and firefighting needs spurred a public works project that would greatly impact the region. A plan for the Croton Aqueduct was finalized in the late 1830s. This was a monumental public works project on a scale previously unseen in the United States. The city&#39;s oldest bridge, the High Bridge, was erected between 1837 and 1848 to carry the Croton Aqueduct across the river. The bridge became the most prominent aspect of the aqueduct&#39;s course, excepting the fountains it supplied downtown. To accommodate the sloops and ferries sailing the river at the time, the bridge was required to meet certain minimum heights and widths for its supporting arches.</p><br>
<p>The construction of the Croton Aqueduct presaged the rapid subjugation of the natural landscape to accommodate the needs of economic and population growth in the New York metropolitan area. The Park Avenue Bridge for the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad was built concurrently, opening in 1841 and bringing rails to the Bronx east of the Hudson. The introduction of several rail lines near the Harlem in the following decades spurred growth of industrial and residential districts along the riverfront.</p><br>
<h4>Further development</h4><br>
<p>The construction of the Hudson railway line along the river’s edge, completed in 1851, changed access to the shore on the Bronx side of the Harlem. The construction of rails on trestles set in “rip-rap” foundations on the riverbed pushed the trains off the land’s edge in favor of an unobstructed course north. These trestles and rip-rap then provided the support for new fill between the rails and the shore. The negative impacts on the shoreline were manifest in the difficulty building new docks or piers, which would require at-grade crossings, as well as in restricted access to the riverfront, a resource that had benefited residents for generations.</p><br>
<p>During this period, anticipated growth in shipping commerce persuaded the city of New York to create the Department of Docks in 1870, as well as adopt a waterfront plan, known as the “McClellan Plan,” which envisioned a partially submerged masonry wall around the whole of the island. These new works were not implemented as rapidly along the Harlem River as they were along the shores of the East and Hudson Rivers, where the channels were deeper and wider, accommodating longer piers.</p><br>
<p>Development of the land around the Harlem River has long been linked to not only the area’s topography, but also its geology. The surrounding area was composed of three distinct layers of bedrock, as well as Manhattan schist, Fordham gneiss, and Inwood marble, all of which were found in outcroppings in the locality and were likely used by the earliest residents for building material as the marble was readily available and easy to tool. In the early 19th century, the stone had been quarried in Inwood and Marble Hill to produce both a building material as well as lime mortar. In 1819, the Spuyten Duyvil Creek was widened to provide additional power for the local marble industry. The excavation for the Harlem River Shipping Canal in 1895, directly through an old quarry site, also served to provide a large quantity of marble rubble, which was used as a building material throughout the area.</p><br>
<h3>20th century</h3><br>
<h4>Canal</h4><br>
<p>The increase of recreational and commercial traffic along the river at the turn of the 20th century required further manipulation of the shore. The river was dredged, formally surveyed, and demarcated by the beginning of the 20th century. The northern tip of the waterway, called Spuyten Duyvil Creek, went through massive changes leading up to the opening of the Harlem River Shipping Canal. This project deepened the river in this area 18 ft and widened it 400 ft. As a result of this engineering project, a portion of Manhattan was severed from the landmass, geographically becoming a part of the Bronx. Today this area is known as Marble Hill, and the community there continues to struggle with political boundaries that are split between the boroughs.</p><br>
<p>While the canal helped shape the communities around it in a number of ways, its plan came too late to influence the development of port facilities further south, which were already committed to growth centered on the railroads. The industrial districts that formed around Mott Haven and Harlem responded most to the presence of the railroad, which developed both as a complement and competitor to waterborne trade. Movement of materials, goods and people along the axes of Manhattan and the Bronx provided a flexibility of transport with which shipping could not compete.</p><br>
<h4>Bridges</h4><br>
<p>Despite the movement away from using the waterway for shipping, its role as a transportation corridor continued to evolve. Through the late 19th century, New York City stretched into its outermost boundaries and sought ways to make use of available land, and to that end, built dozens of bridges across the city. The peak in bridge construction lasted from 1880 to 1910 and focused on the swing bridge as the most economical way to reconcile the land-wasteful approaches of tall bridges with the desire to keep the river navigable for taller vessels. Some of these bridges replaced predecessors unable to sustain increased traffic; others were erected at new sites to provide more access points. Yet another was recycled and moved to a new location further down the river. Almost all of these bridges from that era of expansion still exist. Most of them were for local traffic and pedestrians, and a few once accommodated trolley lines; in addition, two bridges were constructed for train lines, one prior to the advent of the subway.</p><br>
<p>The more recently built Harlem bridges only carry vehicular or train traffic, as the use of the river as waterway diminished by the late 1920s. The fixed-arch Henry Hudson (1936) and Alexander Hamilton (1964) Bridges were added in the later era of automobile highways. Both were intended to relieve traffic congestion in the area, but the number of vehicles quickly increased to fill the temporary lag. Two swing bridges were torn down in the 1950s when their use as elevated train lines was no longer warranted. Two of the more recently constructed bridges (at Broadway and Park Avenue) are vertical lift replacements of swing spans, where the previous bridges had become obsolete for the subway and railroad that used them.</p><br>
<p>The evolution of the bridges across the Harlem River reflects its use as an urban transit corridor, while a few also conjure its fleeting pastoral reputation. Far more tame than the East or Hudson Rivers, the Harlem was not as daunting an obstruction as other rivers. It did not require bridges like the Brooklyn or George Washington that were marvels of long-span engineering. The river required those engineering feats of industrial practicality that would allow for large numbers of vehicles, people, and amounts of goods, to efficiently cross over the river and on it. Truly urban in their response to the land they occupy, the Harlem River bridges each reflect the metropolis’ ambitions and needs of their time.</p><br>
<h2>Usages</h2><br>
<h3>Navigation and transportation</h3><br>
<p>Fourteen bridges cross the Harlem River, connecting the Bronx and Manhattan. According to Harper’s Weekly in 1882, “One of the most striking proofs of the rapid growth of New York is furnished by the bridges of the Harlem.”</p><br>
<p>There are two general categories of bridges on the Harlem River: fixed arch and movable. Four of the bridges are fixed arch spans (Henry Hudson, Alexander Hamilton, Washington, and High Bridges) and are built at some of the highest points along the river, connecting the uplands while remaining high above the water. The other ten bridges are movable, being either swing or lift bridges (Spuyten Duyvil, Broadway, University Heights, Macombs Dam, 145th Street, Madison Avenue, Park Avenue, Third Avenue, Willis Avenue, Triborough (Harlem Lift) Bridges) and Wards Island, and are located at lower grades. At the heart of their construction was the issue of keeping the Harlem River navigable for water traffic and yet sufficiently serving the needs of land bound traffic crossing the river.</p><br>
<p>The waterway is navigable to any boat with less than 55 ft of air draft. However, any boat requiring more than 5 ft of clearance will require the Spuyten Duyvil Bridge to swing open. All other movable bridges on the Harlem River provide at least 24 ft of clearance while closed, so boats and ships requiring between 5 to 24 ft of clearance only require the opening of the Spuyten Duyvil Bridge. These bridges replaced fixed bridges or lower-elevation bridges in the late 19th century to improve navigation. In the 2000s, openings of the movable bridges on the Harlem River for test purposes have outnumbered openings for navigation. There are no fees for navigation of the river.</p><br>
<p>The New York City Department of Transportation advises that while they make every effort to ensure that all bridges are operating, many of them are under repair at any time, and outside contractors are responsible for opening of bridges under repair. As well, sometimes on hot summer days, many of the bridge decks seize due to thermal expansion, and cannot open or close. Since the city will not allow more than one bridge open at a time, a bridge seizing in the open position can potentially leave a mariner stranded in a small section of the river.</p><br>
<p>Harlem River Drive and Harlem River Greenway run along the right bank of the river, and the Hudson Line of the Metro-North Railroad and the Major Deegan Expressway along the left.</p><br>
<h4>Crossings</h4><br>
<h3>Recreational uses</h3><br>
<p>Despite commercial developments, the Harlem River has been used by many as a major source of recreation. In 1902, over a thousand rowers made use of the Harlem River. A number of boat clubs were located along its shores, and remained until 1978, when the last boathouse at Sherman Creek burned down. The Harlem River is the traditional rowing course for New York, analogous to the Charles River in Boston and the Schuylkill River in Philadelphia. On the river&#39;s banks is the boathouse for the Columbia University crew, and the river is the home course for the university&#39;s crew. "Columbia Rock" refers to a large Columbia varsity "C" painted on a rock face along the tracks used by the Metro-North Railroad&#39;s Hudson Line.</p><br>
<p>While there is much commercial use of the waterway, there have also been recreational facilities that line its shore. The steep cliffs that line much of the area were locations that became parkland. The High Bridge shore was developed as a park and “speedway,” on which the well-trained steeds of Manhattan’s elite could race without pedestrian interference. This is an example of the manner in which the shoreline was sculpted, as the rugged edge was united with existing islands to create a landscape in a resort atmosphere from which one could comfortably observe the horse races on land and the sculling in the water. Magnificent arches, stairwells, and footpaths were constructed to facilitate the leisurely usage of the waterfront.</p><br>
<p>Also on the river are the Peter Jay Sharp Boathouse and Harlem River Community Rowing, two community rowing facilities. Community rowing at the Sharp boathouse is run primarily by Row New York, a non-profit specializing in youth development through rowing. The organization took over boathouse operations in the spring of 2012 and has since expanded free rowing activities directed at residents of the local Inwood, Washington Heights, and Bronx neighborhoods. Both youth and adult programs are in operation. The boathouse is also used by crews from Fordham University and Manhattan College, and the river also hosts crews from Columbia University.</p><br>
<p>In addition to recreation in the water, a new Harlem River Park has been added to the Manhattan shoreline from 132nd to 145th streets. This park includes an eco-friendly waterfront edge that provides flora and fauna habitat while cleansing toxins from the water. It also contains several large scale public art murals and 15 etched steel heritage plaques depicting the history and culture of East and Central Harlem communities. The Harlem River Park will eventually connect two portions of the Manhattan Waterfront Greenway around all of Manhattan.</p><br>
<p>On the Bronx side of the river, recently opened parks include Mill Pond Park and Bridge Park.</p><br>
<p>Tonlé Sap ; fresh, not salty , commonly translated to "Great Lake") refers to a seasonally inundated freshwater lake, the Tonlé Sap Lake and an attached river, the 120 km long Tonlé Sap River, that connects the lake to the Mekong River. They form the central part of a complex hydrological system, situated in the 12,876 km&sup2; Cambodian floodplain covered with a mosaic of natural and agricultural habitats that the Mekong replenishes with water and sediments annually. The central plain formation is the result of millions of years of Mekong alluvial deposition and discharge. From a geological perspective, the Tonlé Sap Lake and Tonlé Sap River are a current freeze-frame representation of the slowly, but ever shifting Lower Mekong Basin. Annual fluctuation of the Mekong&#39;s water volume, supplemented by the Asian monsoon regime causes the unique flow reversal of the Tonle Sap River.</p><br>
<p>The Tonlé Sap Lake occupies a geological depression (the lowest lying area) of the vast alluvial and lacustrine floodplain in the Lower Mekong Basin, which had been induced by the collision of the Indian Plate with the Eurasian Plate. The lakes size, length and water volume varies considerably over the course of a year from an area of around 2,500 km&sup2, a volume of 1 km3 and a length of 160 km at the end of the dry season in late April to an area of up to 16,000 km&sup2, a volume of 80 km3 and a length of 250 km as the Mekong maximum and the peak of the South-West monsoons precipitation culminate in September and early October.</p><br>
<p>As one of the world’s most varied and productive ecosystems the region has always been of central importance for Cambodias food provision. It proved capable of largely maintaining the Angkorean civilization, the largest pre-industrial settlement complex in world history. Either directly or indirectly it affects the livelihood of large numbers of a predominantly rural population to this day. With regards to a growing and migrating population, ineffective administration and widespread indifference towards environmental issues the lake and its surrounding ecosystem is coming under increasing pressure from over-exploitation and habitat degradation, fragmentation and loss. All Mekong riparian states have either announced or already implemented plans to increasingly exploit the rivers hydroelectric potential. A succession of international facilities that dam the river&#39;s mainstream is likely to be the gravest danger yet for the entire Tonle Sap eco-region.</p><br>
<p>The largest freshwater lake in Southeast Asia, that contains an exceptional large variety of interconnected eco-regions with a high degree of biodiversity is a biodiversity hotspot and was designated as a UNESCO biosphere reserve in 1997.</p><br>
<h2>Overview</h2><br>
<h2>Lower Mekong Basin</h2><br>
<p>The Lower Mekong Basin (LMB) encompasses the lower half of the Mekong river&#39;s length of 2,600 km and the surrounding catchment area of around 607,000 km&sup2;. It is divided into five rather distinct physiographic units: the Northern Highlands; the Annamite Chain; the Southern Uplands; the Korat Plateau; and the Mekong Plain. These regions each have distinct geology, climate, vegetation and human-use patterns.</p><br>
<p>The Lower Mekong Basin rests on an ancient block of continental crust, that has remained relatively stable since the Jurassic Period, a period of over 150 million years. Large areas were covered by an inland sea during the upper Mesozoic Era, during which thick red-bed sandstones and evaporites were deposited.</p><br>
<p>The Sekong, Sesan, and Srepok rivers - collectively called the 3S Basin - are the dominant tributaries. All three enter the Mekong on the eastern bank. At the southern end of the Basin, the mainstream breaks up into a complex network of branching and reconnecting channels. One of these branches forms the Tonle Sap River. The western and central parts of the southern Basin make up the Great Lake.</p><br>
<p>The Lower Mekong Basin experiences two monsoon periods, rainy from May to October and a dry season from November to March. The annual rainfall is between 1,000 and 3,000 mm, locally up to 4,000 mm, falling almost entirely during the rainy season. Water levels reach their highest in September and October.</p><br>
<h2>The Great Lake ecosystem</h2><br>
<h3>Cambodian floodplain</h3><br>
<p>The Cambodian floodplain or the Mekong Plain is a vast low-lying area traversed by the Mekong river; however, only a relatively small portion of the plain consists of fluviatile deposits of the young Mekong. The plain comprises most of lowland Cambodia and the Mekong Delta of Vietnam, a small part of southern Laos and a small part of eastern Thailand in Chantaburi and Prachinburi provinces. It is bordered by the Dangrek Mountains on the north, the Elephant and Cardomom mountains on the south, and the southern Annamite Range on the east. The plain is about 800 kilometers from north to south and 600 kilometers from east to west; it is mostly less than 100 meters in elevation, but a few higher outcroppings are scattered throughout the plain and much of northern Cambodia is characterized by rolling and dissected plains between 100 and 200 meters elevation. The plain is the result of erosion and sedimentation; the sediments vary in depth from at least 500 meters near the mouth of the Mekong to only about 30 meters at Phnom Penh, with bedrock outcroppings in isolated hills above the plain in several places.</p><br>
<p>The Tonle Sap is the largest freshwater lake in Southeast Asia and one of the richest inland fishing grounds in the world. The Lake functions as a natural flood water reservoir for the Mekong system as a whole by regulating the floods downstream from Phnom Penh during the wet season and makes an important supplement to the dry season flow to the Mekong Delta.</p><br>
<h3>Wetlands, flooded forests and deciduous forests</h3><br>
<p>A belt of freshwater mangroves known as the "flooded forest" surrounds the lake. The floodplains in turn are surrounded by low hills, covered with evergreen or deciduous seasonal tropical forest dominated by species of Dipterocarpaceae, Leguminosae, Lythraceae, Fagaceae and in some places Pinaceae, Podocarpaceae, or bamboo. The eco-region consists of a mosaic of habitats for a great number of species. The forest gradually yields to bushes and finally grassland with increasing distance from the lake.</p><br>
<p>On higher quality soils or at higher elevation, areas of mixed deciduous forest and semi-evergreen forests occur. This variety of vegetation types accounts for the quantity and diversity of species of the Great Lake ecosystem. Interlocking forest, - grassland and marshland patches provide the many facets and refugiae for the abundant local wildlife.</p><br>
<p>The lake’s flooded forest and the surrounding floodplains are of utmost importance for Cambodias agriculture as the region represents the cultural heart of Cambodia, the center of the national freshwater fishery industry - the nations primary protein source.</p><br>
<p>Threats to the lake include widespread pollution, stress through growth of the local population which is dependent on the lake for subsistence and livelihood, over-harvesting of fish and other aquatic - often endangered - species, habitat destruction and potential changes in the hydrology, such as the construction and operation of dams, that disrupt the lake&#39;s natural flood cycle. However, concerns that the lake is rapidly filling with sediment seem - according to studies - to be unfounded at the present time.</p><br>
<h2>Volume fluctuation and flow reversal</h2><br>
<p>Inflow starts in May/June with maximum rates of flow of around 10,000 m/s by late August and ends in October/November, amplified by precipitation of the annual monsoon. In November the lake reaches its maximum size. The annual monsoon coincides to cease around this time of the year. As the Mekong river begins its minimum around this time of the year and its water level falls deeper than the inundated Tonle Sap lake, Tonle Sap river and surrounding wetlands, waters of the lake&#39;s basin now drains via the Tonle Sap river into the Mekong. As a result the Tonle Sap River (length around 115 km/71 mi) flows 6 months a year South-East (Mekong) to North-West (lake) and 6 month a year in the opposite direction. The mean annual reverse flow volume in the Tonle Sap is 30 km3, or about half of the maximum lake volume. A further 10% is estimated to enter the system by overland flow from the Mekong. The Mekong branches off into several arms near Phnom Penh and reaches Vietnamese territory south of Koh Thom and Loek Daek districts of Kandal Province.</p><br>
<h2>Sedimentation</h2><br>
<p>Although the large amount of sediment in the Tonlé sap Lake basin is a natural phenomenon, rapid rates of development and resource exploitation has caught the attention of observers who fear the basin itself is in danger of filling with sediment. These fears were first reported by local people living lakeside that noticed some areas becoming shallower. With increased sedimentation, already vague transit routes between capital and regional centers would likely be shut down altogether and may restrict the migration of fish into the lake.</p><br>
<p>Because sediment contains nutrients that fuel food webs, the Tonlé sap is actually benefitting from the influx. Sediment-bound phosphorus serves as food for phytoplankton through higher plants, and research has shown that the metabolizing of the chemical contributes to food abundance and quality. Internal nutrient cycling, therefore, plays an essential role in productivity of a floodplain. The nutrients bound to suspended sediments are important for the Tonle sap system, particularly to maintain its long-term sustainability.</p><br>
<p>The reversal of the Tonlé sap river&#39;s flow also acts as a safety valve to prevent flooding further downstream. During the dry season (December to April) the Tonlé sap Lake provides around 50% of the flow to the Mekong Delta in Vietnam.</p><br>
<p>The lake occupies a depression created due to the geological stress induced by the collision of the Indian subcontinent with Asia. In recent years, there have been concerns from scientists about the building of high dams and other changed hydrological parameters in southern China and Laos that has threatened the strength and volume of the reverse flow into Tonle sap, which in turn decreases nesting, breeding, spawning, and feeding habitats in floodplain, which results in adverse impacts on fish productivity and overall biodiversity.</p><br>
<h2>Fishing</h2><br>
<h3>Fishery management system</h3><br>
<p>Fishery Laws: The 1987 Fiat Law is still in force. Many of the regulations are largely based on colonial legislation. The fisheries of Cambodia can be divided in two broad categories: limited and open-access fisheries.</p><br>
<p>The most productive part of the Cambodian fisheries has been privatized for more than a century through a system of government leases on fishing lots. The rest is open-access. In the recent past, the lot system provided over US$2 million annually in tax revenues and more in an informal way. The open-access fisheries, however, do not contribute to public taxes.</p><br>
<p>When the Tonlé sap floods, the surrounding areas become a prime breeding ground for fish. During this time, fishermen are scarce; fishing during this time is actually illegal, so as to prevent disruption of mating. At the end of the rainy season, when the water levels go down, fishing is allowed again. Fishermen install floating houses along one half of the river, and the other half is left open for navigation.</p><br>
<p>Most of the fishing captains are of Vietnamese origin, and they primarily supply the country’s markets. Fisherman Sakaloy explains, “My parents were fishermen. We have lived in Cambodia and have this activity for a long time. We started well before the Pol Pot era, when the Khmer Rouge took over from 1975 to 1979. We had to flee to Vietnam, afterwards we came back and have been fishing on the Tonlé sap ever since.” However, thousands of peasants follow this lifestyle hoping for an incredible catch, making it difficult to find spaces big enough to settle with all of the village carts.</p><br>
<p>The process of actually catching fish is simple, but the aftermath takes much more time and effort. Because of the drop in the water level, the Tonlé sap naturally carries away thousands of fish. The fishermen simply place cone-shaped nets into the water from their floating houses and then lift the net as soon as seconds later. Using this technique, two or three tons of fish are trapped each time and more than ten thousand tons of fish can be caught in under a week. One by one, fishermen, mostly women, cut off the fish heads then bring the fish back to the river to be cleaned and to remove the fat. Salting the fish for preservation is the final step in this process, but the fish will continue to macerate for several months in order to transform into a paste called prahok, a nourishing condiment that complements almost any dish. These couple of days, on average three days, of fishing supply enough prahok for the entire year.</p><br>
<p>Fishermen use all parts of the fish for their own needs and also for profit. The removed heads of the fish are dried in the sun, becoming a good fertilizer they can sell. This small amount of extra money is acquired for cases of emergency, such as family illness. By boiling the fat from the bottom of the fish basket, fishermen can also make soap for their personal use. Through bartering on the banks, they exchange fish for rice. Excess rice is also sold for profit. Despite paying employees and buying an official fishing license, fishermen still “have enough money to feed my family for a year. So I don’t need rice fields.” To further emphasize the importance of fish in the local economy, the name given to the Cambodian form of currency is Riel, which is a small silver carp that is the staple of most diets.</p><br>
<p>The implication of the fishing industry in Cambodia is the country’s strong connection to religion, specifically Buddhism. Because of the moral consequences of taking a life, Buddhists limit Cambodian fishing to the amount necessary to feed their families. Additionally, to further lessen the guilt, fishermen do not actually kill the fish; instead they wait for it to die naturally when taken out of the water. Even so, fishermen go to pagodas after the fishing season for purification.</p><br>
<h2>Cultivated lands and rice</h2><br>
<p>The beginning of the dry season is also the beginning of rice season, which is the only source of wealth for peasants. A good harvest will provide enough rice for them to survive for the entire year, but if the floods are too big or too small, rice can become scarce. Because of this uncontrollable instability, many celebrations are held in honor of gods and genies that can influence nature and bring about a good harvest.</p><br>
<p>Historical research has shown that the old Angkorian civilization took advantage of the weather conditions by digging huge reservoirs during the wet season and releasing the water during the dry season using an irrigation system and the land’s natural slope. This double and sometimes even tripled the amount of rice crops per year, strengthening the developing nation. However, today, this irrigation network is no longer present, and peasants only get one rice crop a year. What has not changed is the planting of rice in fields as well as the survival value of rice. It is still the main source of income for peasants and the only currency used to bargain. They use the crops to pay for what they need, such as property rent for land to plant, and the rest is kept for the family to eat.</p><br>
<p>In the fields villagers harvest and thresh traditionally, no machinery is used. As the sun rises, they reap the mature rice plants and replant new ones in their place. Harvested rice plants are cleaned, sprayed, and bundled. Women stoop for hours, their feet in the mud, to replant each rice root, and as the water recedes, a field of green is once again visible. Part of the rice harvest is grilled, ground, and winnowed, a ritual preparation for the upcoming celebration. Rice is also used to prepare lunch. One meal reflective of both the fishing and rice industry is Tonlé sap chicken. The rice and chicken is cooked in the river’s water, and prahok paste made from fish, is then mixed in to add flavor.</p><br>
<p>At the end of the rice season, villagers celebrate by marching in a procession to the pagoda. This is a chance for everyone to relax after the long labor of the harvest season. As well, it provides an opportunity to have fun and bond with the community. All the villagers wear their nicest clothes, musicians sing and dance, and men take the opportunity to court young women. Upon arrival, believers circle the temple three times and then proceed to present gifts such as clothing, dishes, furniture, and food. These donations, named Kathen by Buddha, provide help for bonzis, who in turn give blessings. This act of donation is essential in accumulating good karma for reincarnation, so eventually to reach Nirvana, or ultimate salvation, as well as for future harvests.</p><br>
<h2>Species diversity</h2><br>
<p>The lake is home to at least 149 species of fish, eleven globally threatened species, and six near-threatened species. These threatened and near-threatened species include the spot-billed pelican, greater adjutant, Bengal florican, Oriental darter, grey-headed fish eagle, and the Manchurian reed warbler. Specifically, the large colonies of unique birds constitute the Preak Toal Bird sanctuary. In addition, the Tonlé sap also supports significant reptile populations including nearly extinct Siamese crocodiles and a large number of freshwater snakes. Although the area around the lake has been modified for settlement and farming, about 200 species of plants have been recorded.</p><br>
<p>One of the most legendary species living in the Tonlé sap is the Mekong giant catfish, one of the largest freshwater fish in the world. The fish is 8 to 10 ft long and can weigh anywhere between 250 and. The largest of these catfish ever caught weighed 674 lb. Despite its massive physical characteristics, the Mekong catfish is especially vulnerable to chemical changes, which is beneficial in alerting authorities of trouble in the river ecosystem early on. The population of these fish has been steadily declining since the Khmer Rouge era, led by Pol Pot, and in 2005, fisherman reported that on average only one giant catfish was caught per day. Currently, it is illegal for fishermen to catch and keep these fish with the exception of a few retained by fisheries for research. It also cannot be used in any form of trade in fear of the economic exploitation.</p><br>
<h2>Tonlé Sap Biosphere Reserve</h2><br>
<p>In 1997, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, deemed Tonlé Sap an ecological hotspot. As a result, in 2001, by royal Decree issued by the government of Cambodia, the lake and its surrounding provinces became the Tonlé Sap Biosphere Reserve. There are nine provinces that are part of the Tonle Sap Biosphere Reserve. These are Banteay Meanchey, Battambang, Kampong Chhnang, Kampong Thom, Preah Vihear, Pursat, Siem Reap, Oddar Meanchey and Pailin.</p><br>
<p>The Cambodian government takes responsibility for the fulfillment of three functions:</p><br>
<p>a) a conservation function to contribute to the protection of biological diversity, landscapes, and ecosystem, including genetic resources, plant, fishery and animal species, and to the restoration of the essential character of the environment and habitat of biodiversity</p><br>
<p>b) a development function to foster sustainable development of ecology, environment, economy, society, and culture</p><br>
<p>c) a logistic function to provide support for demonstration projects, environmental education and training, research and monitoring of environment related to the local, national and global issues of conservation and sustainable development.</p><br>
<p>Additionally, the Tonlé Sap Biosphere Reserve established three zones: a core zone, a buffer zone, and a transition zone. Formally, the core area of a Biosphere Reserve is defined as an area devoted to biological resources, landscapes, and ecosystems. The core zone includes practices that protect sites for conserving biodiversity, monitoring minimally disturbed ecosystems and undertaking non-destructive research and related activities. As of today, the three zones are Prek Toal, Boeng Chhmar, and Stung Sen.</p><br>
<p>Despite this government protection, illegal fishing, poaching, and cutting of the forest for farmland are all still major problems. Because people living around the lake are extremely poor and depend on the lake for their survival, it is likely that this unsustainable living will continue. During recent years, the amount of fish caught has been steadily declining, which means peasants must also work harder to provide for their families. The government is working on supporting and educating these people to break this cycle of poverty and non-sustainability. Finding a balance between survival and conservation seems to be the major question for the future.</p><br>
<h2>Cultural Significance - People and culture</h2><br>
<h3>Celebration of the Seven-Headed snake</h3><br>
<p>This celebration also goes by the name Water and Moon Festival and was established to mark the reversal of the Tonlé sap and open the fishing season. The festival lasts three days and begins on the last day of the full moon. However, because of the variation of the monsoon seasons, the reversal of the river does not always coincide exactly with the festival. In the simplest form, the celebration is a series of canoe races, including some 375 teams, and victory brings good fortune for the coming fishing season for the entire village. In addition, these water celebrations are a tribute to one of the Buddhist teeth that a nāga whose daughter married an Indian prince to establish the kingdom of Cambodia, lost in the depths. According to legend, when he was cremated, his tooth fell into the river down to the nāga kingdom.</p><br>
<p>In pagodas along the river, men prepare for the festival by either restoring sacred canoes that have existed for hundreds of years or building new canoes when the old ones are beyond repair. Canoes are made from one piece of a trunk of a coki tree; the wood of the coki tree is resistant to rotting. Each canoe is painted with patterns and eyes that symbolize the guardian goddess, often the spirit of a young tillage girl. This is a modification from the superstitious tradition of sacrifice of nailing actual eyes to the boat dating back before Buddhism. The morning after completion and after three sacred shouts by the crew, the canoes are pushed into the river and head for the capital at full moon. Some crews must row for hours, and others will row for several days. Being chosen as a member of the crew is one of a man’s highest honors, and members must practice to perfect team coordination. Only the best crews will get to the finals in the capital.</p><br>
<p>After two days of racing, all of the canoes come together to encourage the nāga to spit out the swelling waters of the Tonlé sap towards the sea. Firecrackers light the water, the royal palace, and the sky. This moment lets the legendary snake master of water know to return to the depths of the Tonlé sap and leave the power to the sun gods. This also marks the end of the rainy season.</p><br>
<p>The area is home to many ethnic Vietnamese and numerous Cham communities, living in floating villages around the lake. Approximately 1.2 million people living in the greater Tonle sap make their living by fishing on the local waters. Cambodia produces about 400,000 tonnes of freshwater fish per year, the majority of which comes from Tonle sap. These fisheries account for 16 percent of national GDP, making the fish industry not only essential to the diet of local populations but to the Cambodian economy as a whole.</p><br>
<p>Nemrut or Nemrud  is a 2,134 m mountain in southeastern Turkey, notable for the summit where a number of large statues are erected around what is assumed to be a royal tomb from the 1st century BC.</p><br>
<p>The name is a relatively modern one, dating back to the Middle Ages. In Armenian legend, Hayk defeated the Biblical king Nimrod (equated with Bel) and buried him in these mountains. Nemrut is most likely to have received its name from an Armenian tradition in which Nimrod was killed by an arrow by Hayk during a massive battle between two rival armies of giants to the south-east of Lake Van.</p><br>
<h2>Location and description</h2><br>
<p>The mountain lies 40 km north of Kahta, near Adıyaman. In 62 BC, King Antiochus I Theos of Commagene built on the mountain top a tomb-sanctuary flanked by huge statues 8 - of himself, two lions, two eagles and various Greek, Armenian, and Medes gods, such as Zeus-Aramazd or Oromasdes (associated with Zoroastrian god Ahura Mazda), Hercules-Vahagn, Tyche-Bakht, and Apollo-Mihr-Mithras. These statues were once seated, with names of each god inscribed on them. The heads of the statues have at some stage been removed from their bodies, and they are now scattered throughout the site.</p><br>
<p>The pattern of damage to the heads (notably to noses) suggests that they were deliberately damaged as a result of iconoclasm. The statues have not been restored to their original positions. The site also preserves stone slabs with bas-relief figures that are thought to have formed a large frieze. These slabs display the ancestors of Antiochus, who included Armenians, Greeks and Persians.</p><br>
<p>The same statues and ancestors found throughout the site can also be found on the tumulus at the site, which is 49 m and 152 m in diameter. It is possible that the tumulus was built to protect a tomb from tomb-robbers since any excavation would quickly fill with loose rock. The statues appear to have Greek-style facial features, but Armenian clothing and hair-styling.</p><br>
<p>The western terrace contains a large slab with a lion, showing the arrangement of stars and the planets Jupiter, Mercury and Mars on 7 July 62 BC. This may be an indication of when construction began on this monument. The eastern portion is well preserved, being composed of several layers of rock, and a path following the base of the mountain is evidence of a walled passageway linking the eastern and western terraces. Possible uses for this site are thought to have included religious ceremonies, owing to the astronomical and religious nature of the monument.</p><br>
<p>The arrangement of such statues is known by the term hierothesion. Similar arrangements have been found at Arsameia on Nymphaios at the hierothesion of the father of Antiochus, Mithridates I Callinicus.</p><br>
<h2>Ancient history</h2><br>
<p>When the Seleucid Empire was defeated by the Romans in 190 BC at the Battle of Magnesia it began to fall apart and new kingdoms were established on its territory by local authorities. Commagene, one of the Seleucid successor states, occupied a land between the Taurus mountains and the Euphrates. The state of Commagene had a wide range of cultures which left its leader from 62 BC – 38 BC Antiochus I Theos to carry on a peculiar dynastic religious program, which included not only Armenian, Greek and Persian deities but Antiochus and his family as well. This religious program was very possibly an attempt by Antiochus to unify his multiethnic kingdom and secure his dynasty&#39;s authority.</p><br>
<p>Antiochus supported the cult as a propagator of happiness and salvation. Many of the ruins on Mount Nemrud are monuments of the imperial cult of Commagene. The most important area to the cult was the tomb of Antiochus I, which was decorated with colossal statues made of limestone. Although the imperial cult did not last long after Antiochus, several of his successors had their own tombs built on Mount Nemrud. For around half of the year, Mount Nemrud is covered in snow, the effect of which increases weathering, which has in part caused the statues to fall in ruin.</p><br>
<h2>Modern history</h2><br>
<p>The site was excavated in 1881 by Karl Sester, a German engineer assessing transport routes for the Ottomans. Subsequent excavations have failed to reveal the tomb of Antiochus. This is nevertheless still believed to be the site of his burial. The statues, all of them "beheaded", have not been restored to their original condition.</p><br>
<h2>World Heritage Site</h2><br>
<p>In 1987, Mount Nemrut was made a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. Tourists typically visit Nemrut during April through October. The nearby town of Adıyaman is a popular place for car and bus trips to the site, and one can also travel from there by helicopter. There are also overnight tours running out of Malatya or Kahta.</p><br>
<p>Mount Bachelor, formerly named Bachelor Butte, is a stratovolcano atop a shield volcano in the Cascade Volcanic Arc and the Cascade Range of central Oregon.</p><br>
<p>The Mount Bachelor ski area has operated on the mountain since 1958.</p><br>
<p>The volcano lies at the northern end of the 15 mi long Mount Bachelor Volcanic Chain.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Mount Bachelor was formed between 15,000 and 11,000 years ago as a shield volcano but was later capped with a stratovolcano as the eruptions apparently became more explosive over time. It is the youngest prominent volcano in the Three Sisters area of Oregon. Bachelor is composed mainly of basalt and basaltic andesite.</p><br>
<p>It last erupted between 10,000 and 8,000 years ago and is entirely covered with Mazama Ash from the catastrophic eruption of Mount Mazama about 6,845 years ago. There is no geothermal activity at present, though some areas popularly thought to be fumaroles are caused by air movement through the porous structure. Several are near the top of the Pine Marten chairlift and occasionally present a hazard to skiers and snowboarders where the snow is undermined.</p><br>
<h3>Mount Bachelor Volcanic Chain</h3><br>
<p>The Mount Bachelor volcanic chain, southeast of South Sister, consists of Mount Bachelor itself and a series of cinder cones, lava flows and three shield volcanoes.</p><br>
<p>The northernmost shield is capped by a steep-sided summit cone of Mount Bachelor. Minor explosive activity built the many cinder cones which fed the many lava flows that account for the bulk of the erupted material.</p><br>
<p>Eruptive activity of the chain can be considered in four major episodes:</p><br>
<p>The oldest episode occurred approximately 18,000 - 15,000 years ago during glacial retreat. Most activity during this episode was located in the central part of the chain and built a shield volcano called Sheridan Mountain. In an area near Sparks Lake a group of vents formed beneath glacial ice and interacted with the ice to form hyaloclastite deposits and thick lava flows impounded by glacial ice. The resulting steep sided plateau is capped by Talapus and Katsuk Buttes.</p><br>
<p>During the second episode, eruptive activity was along the chain of scoria cones and lava flows that extends from the south side of Sheridan Mountain to the explosion crater at the south end of the chain.</p><br>
<p>During the third episode of eruptive activity built the shield volcano of which is capped by Kwohl Butte and the shield that underlies Mount Bachelor. The final phase of this episode built the summit cone of Mount Bachelor. The oldest glacial moraines recognized on Mount Bachelor are approximately 12,000 years old so the cone had nearly attained its present size by then. These moraines are overlain by the youngest lava flows of the third episode.</p><br>
<p>The last eruptive episode occurred approximately 8,000 to 10,000 years ago and produced a scoria cone and lava flows on the lower north flank of Mount Bachelor. All activity ended before 6,845 C-14 years BP, since tephra from the climactic eruption of Mount Mazama is found on all deposits of the Bachelor chain.</p><br>
<h2>Skiing</h2><br>
<p>Mount Bachelor ski area operates a chairlift during the summer as well as during the ski season (weather permitting). The resort is one of the largest in the Pacific Northwest with a skiable area of 3,683 acre and a vertical drop of 3,365 ft.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>Mount Bachelor is so called because it "stands apart" from the Three Sisters, a group of three volcanic mountains that are northwest of Mount Bachelor. In early days Bachelor Butte was frequently called "Brother Jonathan", or "Mount Brother", but like the names of the Three Sisters, "Johnathan" and "Brother" fell out of use.</p><br>
<p>The resort developers were concerned that skiing on a butte might be perceived by consumers as "small-time" and so named their resort Mount Bachelor. Over time the popularity of the ski area led to the name Mount Bachelor coming into popular usage and in a divided decision, the Oregon Geographic Names Board voted to change the name from Bachelor Butte to Mount Bachelor.</p><br>
<p>Lake Annecy  is a perialpine lake in Haute-Savoie in France.</p><br>
<p>It is the third largest lake in France, after the Lac du Bourget and Lac de Grand-Lieu, if the French part of Lake Geneva (which is also partly in Switzerland) is excluded. It is known as "Europe&#39;s cleanest lake" because of strict environmental regulations introduced in the 1960s. It is a popular tourist destination known for its swimming and water sports.</p><br>
<p>The lake was formed about 18,000 years ago, at the time the large alpine glaciers melted. It is fed by many small rivers from the surrounding mountains (Ire, Eau morte, Laudon, Bornette and Biolon), and from a powerful underwater source, the Boubioz, which enters at 82 m depth.</p><br>
<h2>Towns and villages around the lake</h2><br>
<p>Menthon-Saint-Bernard</p><br>
<p>Saint-Jorioz</p><br>
<p>Sevrier</p><br>
<p>Talloires</p><br>
<p>Veyrier-du-Lac</p><br>
<p>A cycle path goes partially around Lake Annecy past Sevrier and St Jorioz to Ugine. It has an aim to reach Albertville. The lake is around 14 km long.</p><br>
<p>The Zugspitze, at 2,962 m  above sea level, is the highest peak of the Wetterstein Mountains as well as the highest mountain in Germany. It lies south of the town of Garmisch-Partenkirchen, and the Austria–Germany border runs over its western summit. South of the mountain is the Zugspitzplatt, a high karst plateau with numerous caves. On the flanks of the Zugspitze are three glaciers, including the two largest in Germany: the Northern Schneeferner with an area of 30.7 hectares and the Höllentalferner with an area of 24.7 hectares. The third is the Southern Schneeferner which covers 8.4 hectares.</p><br>
<p>The Zugspitze was first climbed on 27 August 1820 by Josef Naus, his survey assistant, Maier, and mountain guide, Johann Georg Tauschl. Today there are three normal routes to the summit: one from the Höllental valley to the northeast; another out of the Reintal valley to the southeast; and the third from the west over the Austrian Cirque (Österreichische Schneekar). One of the best known ridge routes in the Eastern Alps runs along the knife-edged Jubilee Ridge (Jubiläumsgrat) to the summit, linking the Zugspitze, the Hochblassen and the Alpspitze. For mountaineers there is plenty of nearby accommodation. On the western summit of the Zugspitze itself is the Münchner Haus and on the western slopes is the Wiener-Neustädter Hut.</p><br>
<p>Three cable cars run to the top of the Zugspitze. The first, the Tyrolean Zugspitze Cable Car, was built in 1926 by the German company Adolf Bleichert & Co and terminated on an arête below the summit at 2.805 m.a.s.l, the so-called Kammstation, before the terminus was moved to the actual summit at 2.951 m.a.s.l. in 1991. A rack railway, the Bavarian Zugspitze Railway, runs inside the northern flank of the mountain and ends on the Zugspitzplatt, from where a second cable car takes passengers to the top. The rack railway and the Eibsee Cable Car, the third cableway, transport an average of 500,000 people to the summit each year. In winter, nine ski lifts cover the ski area on the Zugspitzplatt. The weather station, opened in 1900, and the research station in the Schneefernerhaus are mainly used to conduct climate research.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Zugspitze belongs to the Wetterstein range of the Northern Limestone Alps. The Austria–Germany border goes right over the mountain. There used to be a border checkpoint at the summit but, since Germany and Austria are now both part of the Schengen zone, the border crossing is no longer manned.</p><br>
<p>The exact height of the Zugspitze was a matter of debate for quite a while. Given figures ranged from 2,690 -, but it is now generally accepted that the peak is 2,962 m above sea level as a result of a survey carried out by the Bavarian State Survey Office. The lounge at the new café is named "2962" for this reason.</p><br>
<h3>Location</h3><br>
<p>At 2,962 m (eastern peak) the Zugspitze is the highest mountain of the Zugspitze massif. This height is referenced to the Amsterdam Gauge and is given by the Bavarian State Office for Survey and Geoinformation. The same height is recorded against the Trieste Gauge used in Austria, which is 27 cm lower. Originally the Zugspitze had three peaks: the east, middle and west summits (Ost-, Mittel- and Westgipfel). The only one that has remained in its original form is the east summit, which is also the only one that lies entirely on German territory. The middle summit fell victim to one of the cable car summit stations in 1930. In 1938 the west summit was blown up to create a building site for a planned flight control room for the Wehrmacht. This was never built however. Originally the height of the west summit was given as 2,964 m.</p><br>
<p>The mountain rises eleven kilometres southwest of Garmisch-Partenkirchen and just under six kilometres east of Ehrwald. The border between Germany and Austria runs over the west summit; thus the Zugspitze massif belongs to the German state of Bavaria and the Austrian state of Tyrol. The municipalities responsible for it are Grainau and Ehrwald. To the west the Zugspitze massif drops into the valley of the River Loisach, which flows around the massif towards the northeast in a curve whilst, in the east, the streams of Hammersbach and Partnach have their source. To the south the Gaistal valley and its river, the Leutascher Ache, separate the Wetterstein Mountains from the Mieming Chain. To the north at the foot of the Zugspitze is the lake of Eibsee. The next highest mountain in the area is the Acherkogel (3,008 m) in the Stubai Alps, which gives the Zugspitze a topographic isolation value of 24.6 kilometres. The reference point for the prominence is the Parseierspitze (3,036 m). In order to climb it from the Zugspitze, a descent to the Fern Pass (1,216 m) is required, so that the prominence is 1,746 m.</p><br>
<p>The massif of the Zugspitze has several other peaks. To the south the Zugspitzplatt is surrounded in an arc by the Zugspitzeck (2,820 m) and Schneefernerkopf (2,874 m), the Wetterspitzen (2,747 m), the Wetterwandeck (2,698 m), the Plattspitzen (2,679 m) and the Gatterlköpfen (2,490 m). The massif ends in the Gatterl (2,024 m), a wind gap between it and the Hochwanner. Running eastwards away from the Zugspitze is the famous Jubilee Ridge or Jubiläumsgrat over the Höllentalspitzen towards the Alpspitze and Hochblassen. The short crest of the Riffelwandkamm runs northeast over the summits of the Riffelwandspitzen (2,626 m) and the Riffelköpfe (2,459 m), to the Riffel wind gap (Riffelscharte, 2,161 m). From here the ridge of the Waxensteinkamm stretches away over the Riffelspitzen to the Waxenstein.</p><br>
<p>The Platt or Zugspitzplatt is a plateau below the summit of the Zugspitze to the south and southeast which lies at a height of between 2,000 and. It forms the head of the Reintal valley and has been shaped by a combination of weathering, karstification and glaciation. The area contains roches moutonnées, dolines and limestone pavements as a consequence of the ice ages. In addition moraines have been left behind by various glacial periods. The Platt was completely covered by a glacier for the last time at the beginning of the 19th century. Today 52% of it consists of scree, 32% of bedrock and 16% of vegetation-covered soils, especially in the middle and lower areas.</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>From a climatic perspective the Zugspitze lies in the temperate zone and its prevailing winds are Westerlies. As the first high orographic obstacle to these Westerlies in the Alps, the Zugspitze is particularly exposed to the weather. It is effectively the north barrier of the Alps (Nordstau der Alpen), against which moist air masses pile up and release heavy precipitation. At the same time the Zugspitze acts as a protective barrier for the Alpine ranges to the south. By contrast, Föhn weather conditions push in the other direction against the massif, affecting the region for about 60 days per year. These warm, dry air masses stream from south to north and can result in unusually high temperatures in winter. Nevertheless, frost dominates the picture on the Zugspitze with an average of 310 days per year.</p><br>
<p>For the decades from 1961 to 1990 – designated by the World Meteorological Organization as the "normal period" – the average annual precipitation on the Zugspitze was 2,003.1 mm; the wettest month being April with 199 mm, and the driest, October with 108.8 mm. By comparison the values for 2009 were 2,070.8 mm, the wettest month being March with 326.2 mm and the driest, January, with 56.4 mm. The average temperature in the normal period was −4.8 Celsius, with July and August being the warmest at 2.2 °C and February, the coldest, with −11.4 °C. By comparison the average temperature in 2009 was −4.2 °C, the warmest month was August at 5.3 °C and the coldest was February at −13.5 °C. The average sunshine during the normal period was 1,846.3 hours per year, the sunniest month being October with 188.8 hours and the darkest being December with 116.1 hours. In 2009 there were 1,836.3 hours of sunshine, the least occurring in February with just 95.4 hours and the most in April with 219 hours. In 2009, according to the weather survey by the German Met Office, the Zugspitze was the coldest place in Germany with a mean annual temperature of −4.2 °C.</p><br>
<p>The lowest measured temperature on the Zugspitze was −35.6 °C on 14 February 1940. The highest temperature occurred on 5 July 1957 when the thermometer reached 17.9 °C. A squall on 12 June 1985 registered 335 km/h, the highest measured wind speed on the Zugspitze. In April 1944 meteorologists recorded a snow depth of 8.3 metres.</p><br>
<p>Nowadays, snow completely melts during summer, but in the past snow might resist the summer months, the last case when the snow failed to melt during the whole summer season was in 2000.</p><br>
<h3>Geology</h3><br>
<p>All mountain-building strata consists of sedimentary rocks of the Mesozoic era, that were originally laid down on the seabed. The base of the mountain comprises muschelkalk beds; its upper layers are made of Wetterstein limestone. With steep rock walls up to 800 metres high, it is this Wetterstein limestone from the Upper Triassic that is mainly responsible for the rock faces, arêtes, pinnacles and the summit rocks of the mountain. Due to the frequent occurrence of marine coralline algae in the Wetterstein limestone it can be deduced that this rock was at one time formed in a lagoon. The colour of the rock varies between grey-white and light grey to speckled. In several places it contains lead and zinc ore. These minerals were mined between 1827 and 1918 in the Höllental valley. The dark grey, almost horizontal and partly grass-covered layers of muschelkalk run from the foot of the Great Riffelwandspitze to the Ehrwalder Köpfe. From the appearance of the north face of the Zugspitze it can be seen that this massif originally consisted of two mountain ranges that were piled on top of one another.</p><br>
<h3>Flora</h3><br>
<p>The flora on the Zugspitze is not particularly diverse due to the soil conditions, nevertheless the vegetation, especially in the meadows of Schachen, the Tieferen Wies near Ehrwald, and in the valleys of Höllental, Gaistal and Leutaschtal is especially colourful.</p><br>
<p>The shaded and moist northern slopes of the massif like, for example, the Wettersteinwald, are some of the most species-rich environments on the Zugspitze. The mountain pine grows at elevations of up to 1,800 metres. The woods lower down consist mainly of spruce and fir, but honeysuckle, woodruff, poisonous herb paris, meadow-rue and speedwell also occur here. Dark columbine, alpine clematis, blue and yellow monkshood, stemless carline thistle, false aster, golden cinquefoil, round-leaved saxifrage, wall hawkweed, alpine calamint and alpine forget-me-not flower in the less densely wooded places, whilst cinquefoil, sticky sage, butterbur, alpenrose, Turk&#39;s cap lily and fly orchid thrive on the rocky soils of the mountain forests. Lily of the valley and daphne also occur, especially in the Höllental, in Grainau and by the Eibsee.</p><br>
<p>To the south the scene changes to larch (mainly in the meadow of Ehrwalder Alm and the valleys of Gaistal and Leutaschtal) and pine forests and into mixed woods of beech and sycamore. Here too, mountain pine grows at the higher elevations of over 2,000 metres.</p><br>
<p>Relatively rare in the entire Zugspitze area are trees like the lime, birch, rowan, juniper and yew. The most varied species of moss, that often completely cover limestone rocks in the open, occur in great numbers.</p><br>
<p>Bilberry, cranberry and cowberry are restricted to dry places and lady&#39;s slipper orchid occurs in sheltered spots. Below the Waxenstein are fields with raspberries and occasionally wild strawberries too. The alpine poppy and purple mountain saxifrage both thrive up to a very great height. On the scree slopes there are penny-cress and mouse-ear chickweed as well as mountain avens, alpine toadflax, mint and. Following snowmelt dark stonecrop and snow gentian are the first to appear, their seeds beginning to germinate as early as August. Other well-known alpine plants like edelweiss, gentians and, more rarely, cyclamen also flower on the Zugspitze.</p><br>
<h3>Fauna</h3><br>
<p>The rocks around the Zugspitze are a habitat for chamois, whilst marmots are widespread on the southern side of the massif. At the summit there are frequently alpine choughs, drawn there by people feeding them. Somewhat lower down the mountain there are mountain hare and the hazel dormouse. Alpine birds occurring on the Zugspitze include the golden eagle, rock ptarmigan, snow finch, alpine accentor and brambling. The crag martin which has given its name to the Schwalbenwand ("Swallows&#39; Wall") at Kreuzeck is frequently encountered. The basins of Mittenwald and Seefeld, as well as the Fern Pass are on bird migration routes.</p><br>
<p>The viviparous lizard inhabits rocky terrain, as does the black alpine salamander known locally as the Bergmandl, which can be seen after rain showers as one is climbing. Butterflies like Apollo, Thor&#39;s fritillary, gossamer-winged butterfly, geometer moth, ringlet and skipper may be seen on the west and south sides of the Zugspitze massif, especially in July and August. The woods around the Zugspitze are home to red deer, red squirrel, weasel, capercaillie, hazel grouse and black grouse. On the glaciers live glacier fleas (Desoria saltans) and water bears.</p><br>
<h3>Glaciers</h3><br>
<p>Three of Germany&#39;s five glaciers are found on the Zugspitze massif: the Höllentalferner the Southern and Northern Schneeferner.</p><br>
<p>The Höllentalferner lies northeast of the Zugspitze in a cirque below the Jubilee Ridge (Jubiläumsgrat) to the south and the Riffelwandspitzen peaks to the west and north. It has a northeast aspect. Its accumulation zone is formed by a depression, in which large quantities of avalanche snow collect. To the south the Jubiläumsgrat shields the glacier from direct sunshine. These conditions meant that the glacier only lost a relatively small area between 1981 and 2006. In recent times the Höllentalferner reached its greatest around 1820 with an area of 47 hectares. Thereafter its area reduced continually until the period between 1950 and 1981 when it grew again, by 3.1 hectares to 30.2 hectares. Since then the glacier has lost (as at 2006) an area of 5.5 hectares and now has an area of 24.7 hectares. In 2006 the glacier head was at 2,569 m and its lowest point at 2,203 metres.</p><br>
<p>Southwest of the Zugspitze, between the Zugspitzeck and Schneefernerkopf, is the Northern Schneeferner which has an eastern aspect. With an area of 30.7 hectares (2006) it is the largest German glacier. Around 1820 the entire Zugspitzplatt was glaciated, but of this Platt Glacier (Plattgletscher) only the Northern and Southern Schneeferner remain. The reason for the relatively constant area of the Northern Schneeferner in recent years, despite the lack of shade, is the favourable terrain that results in the glacier tending to grow or shrink in depth rather than area. In the recent past the glacier has also been artificially fed by the ski region operators, using piste tractors to heap large quantities of snow onto the glacier in order to extend the skiing season.</p><br>
<p>At the beginning of the 1990s, ski slope operators began to cover the Northern Schneeferner in summer with artificial sheets in order to protect it from sunshine. The Northern Schneeferner reached its last high point in 1979, when its area grew to 40.9 hectares. By 2006 it had shrunk to 30.7 hectares. The glacier head then lay at 2,789 m and the foot at 2,558 metres.</p><br>
<p>The Southern Schneeferner is surrounded by the peaks of the Wetterspitzen and the Wetterwandeck. It is also a remnant of the once great Platt Glacier. Today, the Southern Schneeferner extends up as far as the arête and therefore has no protection from direct sunshine. It has also been divided into two basins by a ridge of rock that has appeared as the snow has receded. It is a matter of debate whether the Southern Schneeferner should still be classified as a glacier. The Southern Schneeferner also reached its last high point in 1979, when it covered an area of 31.7 hectares. This had shrunk by 2006 to just 8.4 hectares however. The highest point of the glacier lies at an elevation of 2,665 metres and the lowest at 2,520 metres.</p><br>
<h3>Caves</h3><br>
<p>Below the Zugspitzplatt chemical weathering processes have created a large number of caves and abîmes in the Wetterstein limestone. In the 1930s the number of caves was estimated at 300. By 1955 62 caves were known to exist and by 1960 another 47 had been discovered. The first cave explorations here took place in 1931. Other, largest exploratory expeditions took place in 1935 and 1936 as well as between 1955 and 1968. During one expedition, in 1958, the Finch Shaft (Finkenschacht) was discovered. It is 131 metres deep, 260 metres long and has a watercourse. There is a theory that this watercourse could be a link to the source of the River Partnach.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>From the early 14th century, geographic names from the Wetterstein Mountains began to be recorded in treaties and on maps, and this trend intensified in the 15th century. In 1536 a border treaty dating to 1500 was refined in that its course was specified as running over a Schartten ("wind gap" or "col"). In the 17th century the reference to this landmark in the treaty was further clarified as "now known as the Zugspüz" (jetzt Zugspüz genant). The landmark referred to was a wind gap on the summit of the Zugspitze and is used time and again in other sources. During the Middle Ages Scharte was a common name for the Zugspitze.</p><br>
<p>The Zugspitze was first mentioned by name in 1590. In a description of the border between the County of Werdenfels and Austria, it states that the same border runs "from the Zugspitz and over the Derle" (von dem Zugspitz und über den Derle") and continues to a bridge over the River Loisach. Another border treaty in 1656 states: "The highest Wetterstein or Zugspitz" ("Der höchste Wetterstain oder Zugspitz"). There is also a map dating to the second half of the 18th century that shows "the Reintal in the County of Werdenfels". It covers the Reintal valley from the Reintaler Hof to the Zugspitzplatt and shows prominent points in the surrounding area, details of tracks and roads and the use pasture use. This includes a track over the then much larger Schneeferner glacier to the summit region of the Zugspitze. However the map does not show any obvious route to the summit itself.</p><br>
<p>The name of the Zugspitze is probably derived from its Zugbahnen or avalanche paths. In winter avalanches sweep down from the upper slopes of the massif into the valley and leave behind characteristic avalanche remnants in the shape of rocks and scree.</p><br>
<p>Near the Eibsee lake there are several plots of land with the same root: Zug, Zuggasse, Zugstick, Zugmösel or Zugwankel. Until the 19th century the name der Zugspitz (male gender) was commonplace. It was described as die Zugspitze (female gender) for the first time on a map printed in 1836.</p><br>
<h2>Summit cross</h2><br>
<p>Since 1851 there has been a summit cross on the top of Zugspitze. The driving force behind the erection of a cross on the summit was the priest, Christoph Ott. He was a keen meteorologist and whilst observing conditions from the Hoher Peißenberg mountain he saw the Zugspitze in the distance and was exercised by the fact that "the greatest prince of the Bavarian mountains raised its head into the blue air towards heaven, bare and unadorned, waiting for the moment when patriotic fervour and courageous determination would see that his head too was crowned with dignity." As a result, he organised an expedition from 11 to 13 August 1851 with the goal of erecting a summit cross on the Zugspitze. Twenty eight bearers were led through the gorge of the Partnachklamm and the Reintal valley under the direction of forester, Karl Kiendl, up to the Zugspitze. The undertaking, which cost 610 Gulden and 37 Kreuzer, was a success. As a result, a 28-piece, 14 foot high, gilded iron cross now stood on the West Summit. Ott himself did not climb the Zugspitze until 1854.</p><br>
<p>After 37 years the cross had to be taken down after suffering numerous lightning strikes; its support brackets were also badly damaged. In the winter of 1881–1882 it was therefore brought down into the valley and repaired. On 25 August 1882 seven mountain guides and 15 bearers took the cross back to the top. Because an accommodation shed had been built on the West Summit, the team placed the cross on the East Summit. There it remained for about 111 years, until it was removed again on 18 August 1993. This time the damage was not only caused by the weather, but also by American soldiers who used the cross as target practice in 1945, at the end of the Second World War. Because the summit cross could no longer be repaired, a replica was made that was true to the original cross. After two months the rack railway carried the new cross on 12 October to the Zugspitzplatt, from where it was flown to the summit by helicopter. The new cross has a height of 4.88 metres. It was renovated and regilded in 2009 for 15,000 euros and, since 22 April 2009, has stood once again on the East Summit.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The first recorded ascent to the summit was accomplished by a team of land surveyors on 27 August 1820. The team was led by Lieutenant Josef Naus, who was accompanied by two men named Maier and G. Deutschl. However, local people had conquered the peak over 50 years earlier, according to a 1770 map discovered by the Alpenverein.</p><br>
<p>In 1854, the northern part of the Zugspitze was given to Bavaria as a present by Emperor of Austria and Apostolic King of Hungary Franz Joseph I as a marriage present to his wife Princess Elisabeth ("Sissi"). Since then the Zugspitze is the highest mountain of Bavaria and later of Germany.</p><br>
<p>On 7 January 1882 the first successful winter assault on the Zugspitze was accomplished by F. Kilger, H. and J. Zametzer and H. Schwaiger.</p><br>
<p>Pilot, Frank Hailer, caused a stir on 19 March 1922, when he landed a plane with skids on the Schneeferner glacier. On 29 April 1927 Ernst Udet succeeded in taking off from the Schneeferner with a glider; he landed at Lermoos after a 25-minute flight. The glider had been disassembled into individual parts and transported up the Zugspitze by cable car. In the winter of 1931/32, a post office was set up on the Zugspitze by the German Imperial Post Office or Reichspost. It still exists today in the Sonnalpin restaurant and has the postal address: 82475 Zugspitze. In 1931, four years after the first glider flight, the first balloon took off from the Zugspitze</p><br>
<p>In April 1933, the mountain was occupied by of 24 storm troopers, who hoisted a swastika flag on top the tower on the weather station. A month later, SA and SS deployed on the Schneeferner in the shape of a swastika. On 20 April 1945 the US Air Force dropped bombs on the Zugspitze that destroyed the valley station of the Tyrolean Zugspitze Railway and the hotel on the ridge. After the war the Allies seized the railway and Schneefernerhaus.</p><br>
<p>Shortly after World War II the US military took over the Schneefernerhaus (as the hotel at the top was then called) for the exclusive use of US military and civilian employees. Room rates, including meals, were US $1 per day. Ski lessons were available, taught by Austrians and Germans, at a cost of US $0.25 per hour.</p><br>
<p>In 1948, the German Federal Post Office (Deutsche Bundespost) began operating a microwave radio station at the summit. In September of that year, three artistes walked a steel tightrope stretched between the East and West Summits. Two members of the Traber family traversed the same route in 1953 on a tightrope on a motorcycle. Since 1953, an annual Gatterl Mass (Gatterlmesse) has been held on the Gatterl mountain to commemorate the four members of the Bavarian Border Police who died in an avalanche in 1952 as well as all those who have died on the Zugspitze.</p><br>
<p>In 1962 a fire destroyed the ridge hotel by the mountain station of the Tyrolean Zugspitze Railway. The 1976 Friuli earthquake was also felt particularly strongly on the Zugspitze: the duty meteorologist feared that the observation tower might collapse. In 1981 a chapel was founded on the Zugspitze, which was consecrated by the Archbishop of Munich and Freising, Joseph Ratzinger, in October on the feast of Visitation. On 25 March, an automated teller machine was installed at the summit station; it has since been removed. In 1995, a 450 square metre exhibition area was opened at the summit, in which artists present their work for six months, before the exhibition is changed. In 1995, the border between Germany and Austria at the summit was opened.</p><br>
<p>Since 2000, the Zugspitze extreme mountain run has been held annually. In July 2008 there were repercussions in the media when, as the result of a sudden drop in temperature, two participants died of exhaustion and hypothermia At the end of August 2009 the Swiss, Freddy Nock, walked along a cable of the Zugspitze Glacier Cable Car from the Zugspitzplatt to the summit. He covered the 995 metre long, up to 56% steep route (which had a height difference of 348 metres) unsecured in 50 minutes.</p><br>
<h2>Alpinism</h2><br>
<h3>First ascent</h3><br>
<p>There are several theories about the first ascent of the Zugspitze. The chronological table on an 18th-century map describes the route "along the path to the Zugspitze" ("ybers blath uf Zugspitze") and gives a realistic duration of 8.5 hours, so that it is reasonable to deduce that the summit had been climbed before 1820. The historian, Thomas Linder, believes that goatherds or hunters had at the very least penetrated to the area of the summit. It is also conceivable that smugglers used routes over the Zugspitze summit. As early as 1804 cartographic surveys had taken place in the area for the County of Werdenfels. There is speculation that, in the course of this work, the royal engineer and geographer, Alois von Coulon, had reached the summit. Since Coulon worked for the Topographical Bureau, it is unlikely that his ascent would not have been noted.</p><br>
<p>The first recorded ascent of the Zugspitze was achieved on 27 August 1820 by Lieutenant Josef Naus and mountain guide, Johann Georg Tauschl together with Naus survey assistant and batman (servant), Maier. As early as 21 July Naus, an officer in the Bavarian Army, had asked about the route through the Reintal valley to the Northern Schneeferner. The lieutenant was taking part in a survey exercise by the Royal Bavarian Topographic Bureau (Königlich Bairischen Topographischen Bureau) for the Atlas of Bavaria (Atlas von Bayern) in the Werdenfelser Land. On 26 August, the three of them climbed in a group together with Captain Jetze and Lieutenant Antlischek up to the shepherds hut of Angerhütte.</p><br>
<p>On 27 August around 4 in the morning, Naus, Tauschl and Maier set off for the Zugspitzplatt and Zugspitze summit. From the Schneeferner glacier they attempted to reach the West Summit along the west ridge. Their first attempt failed, but a second was successful and they finally reached the West Summit around 11:45 am, where they left behind a bergstock and cloth to mark their success. A thunderstorm and snowfall forced them to climb down again quickly. On 28 August they returned to the shepherd&#39;s hut at about 3 in the morning. The mountain guide, Tauschl, was given payment of two gulden and 42 kreuzer.</p><br>
<h3>Subsequent ascents</h3><br>
<p>In 1823, Simon Resch and the sheep Toni became the first to reach the East Summit. Simon Resch was also led the second ascent of the East Summit on 18 September 1834 with his son, Johann, and the mountain guide, Johann Barth. Because Reschs first ascent had been doubted, this time a fire was lit on the summit. On the 27th the summit was climbed for a third time by royal foresters assistants, Franz Oberst and Schwepfinger, along with Johann Barth. Oberst erected a flagpole on the summit with a Bavarian flag that was visible from the valley. The first ascent from Austria took place in August 1837. The surveyors, Joseph Feuerstein and Joseph Sonnweber, climbed to the West Summit from Ehrwald and left behind a signal pole with their initials on it. The West Summit was conquered for the third time on 10 September 1843 by the shepherd Peter Pfeifer. He was asked about the route by a group of eight climbers who later reached the summit at the behest of Bavaria&#39;s Crown Princess Marie. She had the route checked in preparation for her own ascent of the Zugspitze. On 22 September 1853, Karoline Pitzner became the first woman on the Zugspitze.</p><br>
<p>The first crossing from the West to the East Summit was achieved in 1857 by Dr. Härtringer from Munich and mountain guide, Joseph Ostler. The Irish brother, Trench, and Englishman, Cluster, succeeded in climbing the West Summit on 8 July 1871 through the Austrian Cirque (Österreichische Schneekar) under the guidance of brothers, Joseph and Joseph Sonnweber. The route through the Höllental valley to the Zugspitze was first used on 26 September 1876 by Franz Tillmetz and Franz Johannes with guides, Johann and Joseph Dengg. The first winter ascent of the West Summit took place on 7 Januar 1882; the climbers being Ferdinand Kilger, Heinrich Schwaiger, Josef and Heinrich Zametzer and Alois Zott. The Jubilee Arête (Jubiläumsgrat) was first crossed in its entirety on 2 September 1897 by Ferdinand Henning. The number of climbers on the Zugspitze rose sharply year on year. If the summit had been climbed 22 times in 1854, by 1899 it had received 1,600 ascents. Before the construction of a cable car in 1926 there had already been over 10,000 ascents.</p><br>
<h3>Normal routes</h3><br>
<p>The easiest of the normal routes runs through the Reintal valley and is that followed during the first ascent. At the same time it is also the longest climb. Its start point is the ski stadium (730 m) at Garmisch-Partenkirchen. The route runs through the gorge of the Partnachklamm and along the Partnach river to the Bock Hut (1,052 m), where the Reintal begins. Above the Partnach, which has meanwhile sunk underground, the route runs up to the Reintalanger Hut (1,370 m). From there the climb is relatively gentle to start with, but then becomes steeper. From the hut the track runs through the Brunntal up to the Knorr Hut (2,057 m), which stands on the eastern rim of the Zugspitzplatt. Here it meets the alternative route from Ehrwald via the Gaistal and the Gatterl at the Reintal Way. The route now runs over the Zugspitzplatt towards the Northern Schneeferner. The protected section of the climb to the Zugspitze summit begins above the Sonn-Alpin restaurant at Point 2815. The route climbs through a height of 2,232 metres and the true duration is between eight and ten hours.</p><br>
<p>The ascent starts in Hammersbach (758 m) through the Höllental along the Hammersbach stream. The path runs through the Höllental Gorge (Höllentalklamm) and was built from 1902 to 1905. Twelve tunnels were driven in the rock of the 1,026 metre long gorge with a total length of 288 metres. Another 569 metres of path was dynamited into the rock in the shape of a half profile, whilst 120 metres was led over footbridges and 49 metres over scree. The construction costs came to a total of 57,000 gold marks. Each year around 60,000 people pass through the gorge. The gorge can also be circumnavigated over the Stangensteig path. After the gorge the route heads for the Höllentalanger Hut (1,381 m), after which it crosses the Höllentalanger stream. Above that the Brett is crossed on steel pins fixed to a rock face. Crossing the Grünen Buckel the trail runs up to the Höllentalferner glacier. The glacier is mostly snow-free in summer so that crampons are required to cross it. Even more difficult is the randkluft because the ice retreats further and further from the rock as it melts. After the glacier there is a klettersteig to the summit of the Zugspitze. This route climbs through a height of 2,204 m, for which between seven and eight hours are needed. There is also the option of getting to the Höllental route on the Riffelsteig path from Eibsee. This path crosses the Riffelscharte wind gap and meets the route before the Brett.</p><br>
<p>A third ascent runs across the Austrian Cirque or Österreichische Schneekar. Starting point for this are the lake of Eibsee (950 m) or the village of Ehrwald (1,000 m). The two trails merge above the cirque of Gamskar. Thereafter the routhe continues to the Wiener-Neustädter Hut (2,209 m) and through the Österreichische Schneekar, at the end of which a klettersteig begins. During this section the route climbs through the Stopselzieher, a natural drainage cave. The route then joins the secured sections of the Reintal route. This ascent takes at least eight hours and climbs 2,012 m in height.</p><br>
<h3>Jubilee Ridge (Jubiläumsgrat)</h3><br>
<p>One of the best-known ridge routes in the Eastern Alps is the Jubilee Ridge, which runs eastwards from the Zugspitze to the Hochblassen (2,707 m) and crosses the Inner (2,737 m), Middle (2,740 m) and Outer Höllentalspitze (2,716 m) as well as the Vollkarspitze (2,630 m). Along the way the route branches off towards Grießkarscharte (2,463 m) and to the Alpspitze (2,628 m). Between 1909 and 1915 the ridge was partially secured with wire cables by the German Alpine Club section at Munich. Originally the route was called the Jubilee Way (Jubiläumsweg), but after a tragic rescue attempt in 1979 the rather erroneous and misleading term, which suggested it was just a normal trail, was replaced by the name Jubiläumsgrat, a Grat being a sharp ridge.</p><br>
<p>During the crossing, which is not a pure klettersteig, several unprotected sections have to be negotiated that roughly correspond to climbing grade III. The most difficult climbing section is a smooth gully (III-). In the area of the Vollkarspitze peak is a climbing section of difficulty (D). The difficulty of the roughly eight kilometre long climbing route is around I and II as well as B. Normally it can be crossed in one day during the summer. Between the Middle and Outer Höllentalspitze is the Höllengrat Hut (2,684 m), a bothy where climbers can take refuge for the night. It is mainly used during winter crossing, when the tour is split into two stages. The approach route to the tour is also possible from the Knorr Hut via the Brunntalgrat ridge and joins the route in the area of the Inner Höllentalspitze.</p><br>
<h3>Accommodation</h3><br>
<p>There are numerous mountain huts in the area of the Zugspitze. One base is the Höllentalanger Hut (1,381 m) in the Höllental valley with 88 mattress spaces. Accommodation in the Reintal is provided by the Reintalanger Hut (1,370 m) with 90 bedspaces and on the edge of the Zugspitzplatt by the Knorr Hut (2,051 m) with 108 bedspaces. The Knorr Hut was the first hut in the entire Wetterstein Mountains when it was built in 1855. All the huts are open from May to October depending on the weather. On the top of the Zugspitze are three more huts: the Wiener-Neustädter Hut, the Münchner Haus and the Schneefernerhaus.</p><br>
<p>The first hut on the Zugspitze was the Wiener-Neustädter Hut (Wiener-Neustädter-Hütte, 2,209 m) built in 1884. It acts as a base for the klettersteig through the Österreichische Schneekar that was opened as far back as 1879. The hut is located on the western rim of the cirque and stand below the Tyrolean Zugspitze Cable Car. It is operated by the Austrian Tourist Club and offers overnighting for up to 34 mountaineers in the period from July to October. The winter room is designed to take 14 people and has no cooking or heating facilities.</p><br>
<p>There has been an accommodation hut just underneath the west summit since 1883. At that time the Alpine Club section at Munich built a wooden hut with places for twelve people. Although further development of the summit for tourism was criticised, more and more members supported the construction of a larger hut. This eventually resulted in the building of the Münchner Haus (2,959 m). First, in 1896, a 200 square metre site was dynamited out of the rock. The new mountain hut was completed on 19 September 1897 at a cost of 36,615 gold marks. It was equipped with a 21 kilometre long telephone cable and a 5.5 kilometre long lightning conductor. In the years 1911 to 1914 the hut was extended and given its present appearance. It offer 30 beds for overnight stays and is open from May to October. An average of 2,000 people stay there each year, in addition to day visitors.</p><br>
<p>The Schneefernerhaus (2,656 m) was built in 1930 as the station of the Bavarian Zugspitze Railway. In June 1931 the attached hotel was opened. After the war, US Forces commandeered the house as a "recreation facility". It was not released until 1952 and was then renovated, opening in December that same year. On 15 May 1965 it was hit by a serious avalanche. The avalanche had been triggered above the house and swept over the sun terrace. Ten people lost their lives and 21 were seriously injured. At the end of the 1980s the station was moved and, in January 1992, the hotel and restaurant closed. Between 1993 and 1997 it was extensively converted into a research station, that opened in 1996. During the building work there was a fire in 1994 that completely destroyed the fifth floor and the roof space.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<h3>Winter sports</h3><br>
<p>For those wishing to reach the summit under their own power, various hiking and ski trails can be followed to the top. Hiking to the top from the base takes between one and two days, or a few hours for the very fit. Food and lodging is available on some trails. In winter the Zugspitze is a popular skiing and snowboarding destination, with several slopes on both sides. The Zugspitzplatt is Germany&#39;s highest ski resort, and thus normally has sufficient snow throughout the winter.</p><br>
<h3>Climbing</h3><br>
<p>At the Zugspitze&#39;s summit is the Münchner Haus, a mountain hut (Alpenhütte), a facility built by the German Alpine Club (Deutscher Alpenverein). For more than a hundred years, the summit has also had a weather station, which nowadays also gathers data for the Global Atmosphere Watch.</p><br>
<p>Climbing up the Zugspitze can involve several routes. The large difference in elevation between Garmisch-Partenkirchen and the summit is 2,200 m, making the climb a challenge even for trained mountaineers.</p><br>
<p>On the German side, from Garmisch-Partenkirchen, climbers go either through the Höllental ("Valley of Hell") or the Reintal. The way through the Reintal is the easiest, but also the longest and takes 8 to 10 hours. This path goes through the Partnachklamm, a scenic gorge, then through the Reintal up to the Zugspitzplatt, a barren plateau. from there up to the summit. Climbers can stay for the night at two alpine huts, the "Reintalangerhütte" or the "Knorrhütte".</p><br>
<p>The more popular, but harder route is through the Höllental. It starts at Hammersbach near Garmisch, goes through the Höllentalklamm, a similar gorge up to the "Höllentalangerhütte", where one can take a meal or stay for the night. It then crosses the Höllentalferner, the remnants of a small glacier. After that it traverses a wall with the help of iron ladders and steps. Klettersteig equipment is recommended for that part. Over the Irmerscharte (a gap) it reaches the summit. This path will take 7 to 8 hours.</p><br>
<p>From the Austrian village of Ehrwald, there are also two variants. One goes straight through the Western Flank, which is the shortest route overall, but rather hard. It includes a via ferrata, and there is a hut called "Wiener Neustädter Hütte" by the Austrian Alpine Club. An easier path leads via the Ehrwalder Alm, across a small pass called "Gatterl", joining the Reintal path at the Knorrhütte.</p><br>
<p>KV55 is a tomb in the Valley of the Kings in Egypt. It was discovered by Edward R. Ayrton in 1907 while he was working in the Valley for Theodore M. Davis. It has long been speculated, as well as much-disputed, that the body found in this tomb was that of the famous Pharaoh Akhenaten, who moved the capital to Akhetaten . The results of genetic and other scientific tests published in February 2010 have confirmed that the person buried there was both the son of Amenhotep III as well as the father of Tutankhamun. Furthermore, the study established that the age of this person at the time of his death was consistent with that of Akhenatens; thereby making it almost certain that it is Akhenatens body.</p><br>
<p>Both the tomb&#39;s history and the identification of its single occupant have been problematic. It is assumed to be a royal cache and reburial dating from the late 18th Dynasty, prepared after the abandonment of Amarna and the dismantling of the royal necropolis there. On the basis of the recovered artifacts, it is also suggested that the burial once contained more than a single occupant, either interred on one occasion or over a period of time. Queen Tiye is most often named in this context.</p><br>
<p>It is also clear that the tomb was re-entered at a later time, almost certainly during the 20th Dynasty. At this time, any additional, hypothetical occupants of the tomb would have been removed and (possibly) relocated to KV35, while the remaining mummy and some of the other artefacts were desecrated and abandoned.</p><br>
<p>The tomb is often referred to as the Amarna cache, given the mixed nature of its contents.</p><br>
<h2>Discovery and excavations</h2><br>
<p>The entrance to KV55 was uncovered by Ayrton on 6 January 1907. Its discovery was brought to Davis&#39;s attention on the following day. The tomb was first entered on 9 January by Ayrton, Davis, Joseph Lindon Smith, and (as the representative of the antiquities service) Arthur Weigall. On the 11th, the finds were photographed. Ayrton then began clearance of the tomb. On 25 January 1907, the coffin and mummy were investigated in situ.</p><br>
<p>According to a letter from Davis to Gaston Maspero, some of the objects found in KV55 were still in place in January 1908, and their study and attempts at conservation were still ongoing at this later date.Reeves, C.N., Valley of the Kings, (Keegan Paul, 1990), p</p><br>
<p>. 335-336</p><br>
<p>In 1921, while excavating south of the tomb, Howard Carter discovered several items that seem to have originated in KV55. These include a jasper burnisher and some fragments of copper rosettes from a funerary pall.</p><br>
<p>After its excavation, the tombs entrance was fitted with a steel door, which however was later removed and replaced by stone blocking. By 1944, this blocking had collapsed and filled the tombs entrance with debris. In 1993, the tomb was cleared again by Lyla Pinch Brock. In 1996, she undertook conservation work on the stairs and the plastering inside the burial chamber through a grant from the American Research Centre in Egypt.</p><br>
<h3>KVC</h3><br>
<p>Three days before the discovery of KV55, Ayrton uncovered a recess in the rock (now designated as KVC) located immediately above the entrance to KV55 and containing jars of 20th dynasty type. This recess may have been an unfinished tomb commencement, and its content may be analogous to the embalming cache found in KV54, but because the find was never properly published, the precise nature of its contents, the date of the jars, and its relation (if any) to KV55 are now unclear.</p><br>
<h2>The tomb</h2><br>
<h3>Location and general appearance</h3><br>
<p>KV55 is a relatively small, undecorated, single-chamber tomb, its total length measuring only 27.61 meters. It is located in the central area of the Valley, immediately adjacent to and below KV 6 (Ramesses IX) and across the valley floor from KV7 (Ramesses II) and the near-contemporary tomb KV62 (Tutankhamun). Oriented almost due east, its entranceway consists of a set of stairs cut into the Valleys bedrock which lead to a gently sloping corridor and then to the tombs single chamber.</p><br>
<p>The tomb appears to be unfinished: in the south wall of the burial chamber is a small niche, the commencement of an unfinished antechamber, while red masonry marks within the burial chamber indicate plans for yet another room. When finished these would have made the tombs layout roughly similar to that of Tutankhamuns. Such a plan seems to indicate that KV55, like KV62, was initially intended as a private burial site and only later taken over for a royal interment.</p><br>
<h3>Entranceway</h3><br>
<p>The tomb is accessed by a flight of 20 steps, cut into the bedrock and covered by an overhanging rock. An ostracon found by Pinch Brock in 1993 has been interpreted as a plan of the tomb, and possibly indicates a widening of the entrance after its initial cutting. This possibility is also suggested by masons marks found on the walls by the tombs entrance. It appears that the stairwell has been enlarged, its ceiling raised, and the number of steps increased.</p><br>
<p>When the tomb was discovered in 1907, the stairwell was covered with debris, probably originating from the cutting of KV 6 directly above. The upper layer of this filling consisted of chips cemented together by water; underneath, the chips were dry and clean.</p><br>
<h3>Doorway and blocking</h3><br>
<p>When it was discovered, the tombs outer door was blocked by two consecutive walls. The primary blocking consisted of a wall of cemented limestone blocks, plastered and stamped with the seal of the Royal Necropolis (with the jackal and nine captives motif). Weigall later stated that a fragment of Tutankhamuns seal had been recovered from this original blocking. However, his statement is not corroborated by any of the other reports dating from the initial discovery, leaving Weigall&#39;s claim open to question.</p><br>
<p>The first wall had been partially pulled down in antiquity, and the tomb was closed again by a second wall made of loose limestone fragments, erected in front of the remains of the first wall. Because Weigall described these consecutive blockings in ambiguous terms, it is unclear whether the secondary wall was found intact or had already been partially dismantled, like the primary wall.</p><br>
<h3>Corridor</h3><br>
<p>The sloping corridor beyond the entrance was partially filled with rubble. Since the secondary wall was built on top of material originating from this rubble, the fill seems to date from the time of the original interment. By 1907 this rubble had spread down into the burial chamber. Stains on the ceiling and walls of the corridor indicate that water had infiltrated the tomb in the past.</p><br>
<p>On top of the rubble fill were found a panel and door of a large gilded shrine, although the exact position of these items is unclear. Additional pieces of the same shrine were recovered from the burial chamber.</p><br>
<h3>Burial chamber and niche</h3><br>
<p>The walls of the burial chamber were plastered but otherwise undecorated. This plastering seems to have been done some years after the cutting of the tomb, and repairs are evident.</p><br>
<p>Items found in the burial chamber can be grouped into several categories:</p><br>
<p>Parts of a dismantled, gilded shrine: Related to the panel and door found in the corridor. A door was found lying on the rubble inflow near the entrance to the chamber; large panels were lying on the floor or stacked against the eastern wall; and smaller elements (such as doorjambs, a lintel, and possibly parts of the cornice) were lying on the floor.</p><br>
<p>Coffin, mummy, and related items: Lying against the southern wall and resting on the decayed remains of a lion-headed bier was a badly damaged coffin. Its lid was ajar, and the coffin box had rotted. The mummy contained in this coffin was badly preserved but its linen wrappings appear to have been intact. The damaged skull had been separated from the body and was found with a vulture pectoral wrapped around it. The left arm of the body was crossed over the chest, the right arm extended. In the niche above this coffin was found a set of four canopic jars. Also related to this group of items were four "magical bricks."</p><br>
<p>Remains of boxes and their contents: At least two badly preserved boxes were found in the south-eastern corner of the room, their contents spread on the floor. These included faience objects and appear to have been related to the "Opening of the Mouth" ceremony.</p><br>
<p>Seal impressions: Several small seal impressions were found underneath the panels of the gilded shrine. These carry Tutankhamuns prenomen and are identical to seal type N found in Tutankhamuns own tomb.</p><br>
<p>Other items: Their exact location in the chamber is not always clear. Included are a vase stand, fragment of furniture, a silver head of a goose, pall-discs of gilded copper, and a statue plinth.</p><br>
<p>Some wooden objects in the burial chamber seem to have suffered water damage, most notably the coffin, bier, and boxes; however, the elements of the gilded shrine appear to have been reasonably solid. Moisture is also the likely cause of the discoloration visible on some of the faience objects, although other, similar objects appear unaffected.</p><br>
<h2>Interpretation</h2><br>
<p>The problems surrounding the interpretation of KV55 are due in large part to the shortcomings of Davis&#39;s original publication of the excavation. Its mix of fact, assumption, error, and omission has obscured a full understanding of the deposit ever since. The blame for these shortcomings usually falls on Davis (as editor of the publication) and Ayrton (as supervising archaeologist).</p><br>
<p>Recent careful re-examinations of the original publication, of eyewitness reports, and of the photographs taken before the tomb was cleared have brought some clarity to the situation.</p><br>
<p>Although the tomb was clearly disturbed in antiquity (see below), and although its contents have been described as disorded and chaotic, Martha Bell argued that this disarray was more apparent than real. Her reconstruction of the layout of the tomb indicates an orderly and deliberate arrangement of artefacts, and she suggests that the impression of chaos might be due to the collapse of wooden objects caused by falling plaster and stone. The "cemented" chips and stains in the corridor indicate that water entered the tomb along the corridor ceiling, but the amount of water might not have been great, and most damage could have been caused by increased humidity rather than direct contact with water. Bell also suggested that the moisture under the mummy might have resulted from rainfall shortly after the tomb&#39;s opening in 1907. Other damage to wooden objects might result from an insect attack.</p><br>
<h3>The shrine and Tiye's burial</h3><br>
<p>A recent reconstruction of the shrine, based on photographic evidence, drawings, eyewitness descriptions, and two surviving planks on display in Cairo, indicate that it resembled Tutankhamuns second and third shrines in general appearance and size. The presence of copper rosettes indicate that a funeral pall was draped on a frame associated with the shrine, also comparable to Tutankhamuns shrines. However, the decoration and inscriptions on the shrine are markedly different from those of Tutankhamun: the decoration was dominated by large offering scenes rather than a multitude of smaller mythological scenes; the text was far more brief, and seems primarily concerned with titles, names, and the shrine&#39;s dedication, rather than with excerpts from funerary books; and the interior of the shrine was uninscribed and undecorated.</p><br>
<p>The text on the shrine states that it was made by Akhenaten for his mother Tiye. With one exception, the names of Akhenaten were erased and in some places were replaced by those of Amenhotep III in ink. The text also refers to the "House of the Aten in Akhetaten," perhaps indicating that the shrine was made and originally used in Amarna. The decoration, which appears to have been very similar on all sides of the shrine, features Akhenaten and Tiye making offerings to the Aten, with a focus on the king rather than his mother. As with his names, Akhenaten&#39;s figure was erased from the scenes, with one exception.</p><br>
<p>The orderly arrangement of the shrine parts inside the tomb seems to indicate that it once stood up, fully assembled, with its doors facing south, and that it was later dismantled inside the tomb. It appears that only a single shrine was used in KV55, rather than a suite of four nested shrines as in the tomb of Tutankhamun.</p><br>
<p>The presence of a shrine dedicated to Tiye is usually seen as evidence that Tiyes mummy once reposed inside the shrine in KV55. Other objects inscribed with her name (such as the piece of furniture) and with those of Amenhotep III are also seen as belonging to her funerary equipment. The seal impressions found near the east wall might indicate further items that were removed together with the queens mummy at some later point.</p><br>
<h3>Coffin, canopic jars and magical bricks</h3><br>
<p>When KV55 was initially opened, Theodore Davis believed that he had found the tomb of Queen Tiye. However, it was quickly recognized that the human remains interred there were male. Georges Daressy further deduced that the gilded coffin found in the tomb was originally made for a woman and only later adapted to accommodate a king, through alterations to its inscriptions and the addition of a false beard, a uraeus, and the royal scepters (crook and flail). The identity of the coffins original owner has been a matter of much discussion over the years, with Tiye, Nefertiti, Meketaten, and Meritaten all proposed as candidates. It is now widely accepted that the coffin was originally intended for Akhenatens secondary wife Kiya. It is also recognized that the four canopic jars discovered near the coffin belonged to Kiya, and that the female heads on the jars stoppers portray her. Like the coffin, the canopic jars were altered for the burial of a king through the erasure of Kiyas titulary and the addition of a royal uraeus to each portrait head.</p><br>
<p>All personal names inscribed on the coffin and the canopic jars were excised in antiquity, rendering the identity of the human remains inside the coffin a matter of long debate. Over the past century, the chief candidates for this individual have been either Akhenaten himself or Smenkhkare, another male member of the Amarna royal family.</p><br>
<p>Evidence that the occupant of the coffin was Akhenaten is provided by the four magical bricks found inside the tomb. Two were inscribed in hieratic, but they are poorly preserved and the name of their owner is lost. The other two, however, are of better quality, with hieroglyphic inscriptions naming the Osiris Neferkheprure Waenre, a reference to Akhenatens nomen. The fact that all four bricks were orientated correctly and that three of them were positioned in close association with the coffin suggests that they were intended as a set and were made for the coffins final occupant, who would therefore be Akhenaten.</p><br>
<h3>The identification of the mummy</h3><br>
<p>The mummy found in the tomb was however at first identified as belonging to a woman by two visiting physicians who examined the remains in situ. This led Davis to conclude he had found the mummy of queen Tiye and he therefore published his account of the discovery as The Tomb of Queen Tiyi. As possible reasons for this initial identification the (typical female) position of the mummys arms, post-mortem damage to the pelvic bones and the absence of male genitalia have been suggested. But when anatomist Grafton Elliot Smith examined the skull and bones in Cairo a few months later he concluded that they were those of a young male, with wide hips, a pendent chin and distorted cranium brought on by chronic hydrocephalus. The age of death he estimated as being around 25 years although he later suggested the possibility that the body had suffered from Frölichs syndrome which delayed normal skeletal maturation. These results were seen to support the initial claims by Weigall, Maspero and Smith, based on other evidence found in the tomb (see above) that the body was that of Akhenaten.</p><br>
<p>Later re-examinations of the remains confirmed Smiths original identification of the mummy as belonging to a young male (although with feminine trends) but pushed the estimated age of death back to around 20 years. These re-examinations also indicated that the body showed no signs of delayed maturation and that, while the skull was of unusual shape, it certainly wasnt abnormal, and showed no indication of hydrocephalus. Reconstruction of the facial features of the skull also indicated that there was no resemblance with Akhenatens representation on his monuments. It must be remembered though, that Akhenatens representations are highly stylised. After the discovery of the tomb of Tutankhamun a close resemblance was noted between his mummy and the body found in KV55 and later tests showed both shared the same blood-group (A2) and serum antigen (MN), all of which suggests Tutankhamun and the individual found in KV55 were closely related to each other, either as father and son, or brothers. Based on these results it was concluded that the KV55 body was too young to be Akhenaten and they were seen to support the claim that the mummy was that of Smenkhkare, an idea first proposed by Rex Engelbach in 1931.</p><br>
<p>Before February 2010, it was pointed out that the reliability of methods to assess the age of death for mummies in general was uncertain. For these reasons the correctness of the age estimates was repeatedly called into question. This opinion found support in the analysis of the skeletal remains which had indicated an age of death around 35 years (based on dentition) or even later (based on anthropological standards and new X-rays of the long bones). Some examinations placed the mummy at 20–25 years at death, while others assessed the mummy as 35 years. The archaeological, inscriptional and now genetic evidence indicate that the ancient Egyptians who buried (and later desecrated) the body in KV55 believed this to be Akhenaten&#39;s.</p><br>
<p>Further complicating the identity of the KV55 mummy is the fact that he does not seem to be the father of the female mummy KV21a. The latter has been identified as the mother of two foetuses found in Tutankhamun&#39;s tomb, thus probably making her Ankhesenamun, the daughter of Akhenaten and the only known wife of Tutankhamun.</p><br>
<h3>Reconstruction</h3><br>
<p>The deposit as it was found in KV55 presents a mixture of chronological and religious anomalies. Objects inscribed with Amenhotep IIIs nomen and prenomen might be contemporary with that kings reign and could be interpreted as possessions of Queen Tiye. Other items inscribed with Tiyes name (such as the shrine and furniture elements) also clearly belonged to her. Akhenatens presence is indicated by items originally inscribed for him (such as the magical bricks) and items that were adapted for his use (such as the coffin and canopic jars).</p><br>
<p>It is nevertheless highly unlikely that either of these two burials within KV55 was original. In the case of Tiye, evidence found in tomb WV22 suggests that Amenhotep III prepared her burial in his own tomb. However, the fact that Tiye outlived her husband by possibly as much as twelve years seems to have disrupted such plans. From inscriptional evidence on the KV55 shrine on the other hand, it seems likely that Tiye was buried at Amarna by her son Akhenaten. In the case of Akhenaten it seems almost certain that he was originally buried in the tomb he prepared for himself in the Amarna royal wadi. Although it is unclear whether or not the original blocking of the tomb was stamped with Tutankhamun&#39;s seal, the several small seal impressions carrying his prenomen are most likely related to the reburial(s) in KV55 since he was probably not involved in the original burial preparations of either Tiye (who died several years before Tutankhamun came to the throne) or Akhenaten (who presumably was buried by his co-regent and probable immediate successor Smenkhkare).</p><br>
<p>One scenario, suggested by Nicholas Reeves, is as follows: Akhenaten and his mother, Queen Tiye, were originally entombed at Akhenatens new capital Akhetaten (modern Amarna) but their mummies were moved to KV55 following the total abandonment of Akhetaten during the reign of Tutankhamun, who was Akhenatens son. The door to KV55 was sealed with Tutankhamuns name. There the mummies remained for about 200 years, until the tomb was rediscovered by workmen excavating the tomb of Ramesses IX nearby. By this time, Akhenaten was reviled as the "heretic king&quot consequently, Queen Tiyes sarcophagus was hastily removed from his defiling presence, except for its surrounding gilded wooden shrine which would have had to be dismantled for removal. Akhenatens likeness was chiseled off of the shrines carved relief. Moreover, the gold face mask was ripped from Akhenatens sarcophagus and his identifying cartouche was removed from its hieroglyphic inscription, thus consigning its occupant to oblivion. As a final insult, a large rock was thrown at the coffin. However, a finely made vulture pectoral—a symbol of royalty in Ancient Egypt—was still found placed around this mummys head.</p><br>
<h2>Later use of KV55</h2><br>
<p>In 1923, Harry Burton used KV55 as a darkroom to develop his photographs documenting Howard Carters excavation of Tutankhamuns tomb.</p><br>
<p>KV62 is the standard Egyptological designation for the tomb of the young pharaoh Tutankhamun in the Valley of the Kings, now renowned for the wealth of valuable antiquities it contained. The tomb was discovered in 1922 by Howard Carter, underneath the remains of workmen&#39;s huts built during the Ramesside Period; this explains why it was largely spared from desecration and from the tomb clearances at the end of the 20th Dynasty, although the tomb was robbed and resealed twice in the period after its completion.</p><br>
<p>The tomb was densely packed with items in great disarray, partly due to its small size, the two robberies, and the apparently hurried nature of its completion. Due to the state of the tomb, and to Carter&#39;s meticulous recording technique, the tomb took eight years to empty, the contents all being transported to the Egyptian Museum in Cairo.</p><br>
<p>Tutankhamuns tomb had been entered at least twice, not long after he was buried and well before Carters discovery. The outermost doors of the shrines enclosing the king&#39;s nested coffins were unsealed, though the inner two shrines (three and four) remained intact and sealed.</p><br>
<h2>Discovery of the tomb</h2><br>
<p>In 1907, just before his discovery of the tomb of Horemheb, Theodore M. Daviss team uncovered a small site containing funerary artifacts with Tutankhamuns name and some embalming parts. Erroneously assuming that this site, numbered finally as KV54, was Tutankhamuns complete tomb, Davis concluded the dig. The details of both findings are documented in Daviss 1912 publication, The Tombs of Harmhabi and Touatânkhamanou; the book closes with the comment, "I fear that the Valley of the Kings is now exhausted." But Davis was to be proven spectacularly wrong.</p><br>
<p>The British Egyptologist Howard Carter (employed by Lord Carnarvon) hired a crew to help him excavate at the site of KV62. Carter went back to a line of huts that he had abandoned a few seasons earlier. After clearance of the huts and rock debris beneath, they found a stone step cut into the bedrock. A flight of steps was partially uncovered, leading to the top of a mud-plastered doorway stamped with indistinct oval seals, called cartouches. Carter ordered the staircase to be refilled, and sent a telegram to Carnarvon, who arrived two-and-a-half weeks later on 23 November along with his 21-year-old daughter, Lady Evelyn Herbert.</p><br>
<p>The excavators cleared the stairway completely, which allowed clearer seals lower down on the door to be read, seals bearing the name of Tutankhamun. However, further examination showed that the door blocking had been breached and resealed on at least two occasions. Clearing the blocking led to a downward corridor that was completely blocked with packed limestone chippings, through which a robbers&#39; tunnel had been excavated and anciently refilled. At the end of the tunnel was a second sealed door that had been breached and re-sealed in antiquity. Carter then made a hole in the door, and used a candle to check for foul gases, before looking inside.</p><br>
<p>‘At first I could see nothing,’ he would later write, ‘the hot air escaping from the chamber causing the candle flame to flicker, but presently, as my eyes grew accustomed to the light, details of the room within emerged slowly from the mist, strange animals, statues, and gold - everywhere the glint of gold’.</p><br>
<h3>Investigation</h3><br>
<p>The first step to the stairs was found on November 4, 1922. The following day saw the exposure of a complete staircase. The end of November saw access to the antechamber and the discovery of the annex, and then the burial chamber and treasury. On November 29, the tomb was opened, and the first announcement and press conference followed the next day. The first item was removed from the tomb on December 27.</p><br>
<p>On February 16, 1923, the burial chamber was opened, and on April 5, Lord Carnarvon died.</p><br>
<p>On February 12, 1924, the granite lid of the sarcophagus was raised. In April, Carter argued with the Antiquities Service and left the excavation for the United States.</p><br>
<p>In January 1925, Carter resumed activities in the tomb, and on October 13, he removed the cover of the first sarcophagus; on October 23, he removed the cover of the second sarcophagus; on October 28, the team removed the cover of the final sarcophagus and exposed the mummy; and on November 11, the examination of the remains of Tutankhamun started.</p><br>
<p>Work started in the treasury on October 24, 1926, and between October 30 and December 15, 1927, the annex was emptied and examined. On November 10, 1930, eight years after the discovery, the last objects were removed from the tomb.</p><br>
<h2>Layout of tomb</h2><br>
<p>In design, the tomb appears to have originally been intended for a private individual, not for royalty. There is some evidence to suggest that the tomb was adapted for a royal occupant during its excavation. This may be supported by the fact that only the burial chamber walls were decorated, unlike royal tombs in which nearly all walls were painted with scenes from the Book of the Dead.</p><br>
<h3>Staircase</h3><br>
<p>Starting from a small, level platform, 16 steps descend to the first doorway, which was sealed and plastered – although it had been penetrated by grave robbers at least twice in antiquity.</p><br>
<h3>Entrance corridor</h3><br>
<p>Beyond the first doorway, a descending corridor leads to the second sealed door, and into the room that Carter described as the Antechamber. This was used originally to hold material left over from the funeral and material associated with the embalming of the king. After an initial robbery, this material was either moved into the tomb proper, or to KV54, and the corridor was sealed with packed limestone chippings which covered some debris from the first robbery. A later robbery broke through the outer door and excavated a tunnel through the chippings to the second door. The robbery was discovered and the second door was resealed, the tunnel refilled, and the outer door sealed again.</p><br>
<p>Carter said that he found the Head of Nefertem in this section.</p><br>
<h3>Antechamber</h3><br>
<p>The undecorated antechamber was found to be in a state of "organized chaos", partly due to ransacking during the robberies, and contained approximately 700 objects (articles 14 to 171 in the Carter catalogue) amongst which were three funeral beds, one decorated with the heads of lions (the Goddess Mehet), one with the heads of spotted cattle (representing the great flood, or Mehet-Uret) and one featuring a composite animal with the body of a lion, the tail of a hippopotamus, and the head of a crocodile (representing the corpse-devourer Ammit). Perhaps the most remarkable item in this room were the components, stacked, of four chariots of which one was possibly used for hunting, one for "war" and another two for parades. A large chest was found to contain military items, walking sticks, the king&#39;s underpants and a copper alloy trumpet – one of two trumpets found in the tomb, the oldest functioning brass instruments in the world.</p><br>
<h3>Burial chamber</h3><br>
<h4>Decoration</h4><br>
<p>This is the only decorated chamber in the tomb, with scenes from the Opening of the mouth ceremony (showing Ay, Tutankhamuns successor acting as the kings son, despite being older than he is) and Tutankhamun with the goddess Nut on the north wall, the first hour of Amduat (on the west wall), spell one of the Book of the Dead (on the east wall) and representations of the king with various deities (Anubis, Isis, Hathor and others now destroyed) on the south wall. The north wall shows Tutankhamen being followed by his Ka, being welcomed to the underworld by Osiris.</p><br>
<p>Some of the treasures in Tutankhamuns tomb are noted for their apparent departure from traditional depictions of the boy king. Certain cartouches where a kings name should appear have been altered, as if to reuse the property of a previous pharaoh—has often occurred. However, this instance may simply be the product of "updating" the artifacts to reflect the shift from Tutankhaten to Tutankhamun. Other differences are less easy to explain, such as the older, more angular facial features of the middle coffin and canopic coffinettes. The most widely accepted theory for these latter variations is that the items were originally intended for Smenkhkare, who may or may not be the mysterious KV55 mummy. This mummy, according to craniological examinations, bears a striking first-order (father-to-son, brother-to-brother) relationship to Tutankhamun.</p><br>
<h4>Contents</h4><br>
<p>The entire chamber was occupied by four gilded wooden shrines which surrounded the king&#39;s sarcophagus. The outer shrine ( in the cross-section) measured 5.08 x 3.28 x 2.75 m and 32 mm thick, almost entirely filling the room, with only 60 cm at either end and less than 30 cm on the sides. Outside of the shrines were 11 paddles for the "solar boat", containers for scents, and lamps decorated with images of the God Hapi.</p><br>
<p>The fourth and last shrine () was 2.90 m long and 1.48 m wide. The wall decorations depict the king&#39;s funeral procession, and Nut was painted on the ceiling, "embracing" the sarcophagus with her wings.</p><br>
<p>This sarcophagus was constructed in granite ( in the cross-section). Each corner of the main body and lid were carved from stone of different colours. It appears to have been constructed for another owner, but then recarved for Tutankhamen; the identity of the original owner is not preserved. In each corner a protective goddess (Isis, Nephthys, Serket and Neith) guards the body.</p><br>
<p>Inside, the kings body was placed within three mummiform coffins, the outer two made of gilded wood while the innermost was composed of 110.4 kg of pure gold. Tutankhamuns mummy was adorned with a gold mask, mummy bands and other funerary items. The funerary mask is made of gold, inlaid with lapis lazuli, carnelian, quartz, obsidian, turquoise and glass and faience, and weighs 11 kg.</p><br>
<h3>Funerary text</h3><br>
<p>The Enigmatic Book of the Netherworld is a two-part ancient Egyptian funerary text inscribed on the second shrine of the sarcophagus.</p><br>
<p>The term "enigmatic" here refers to the fact that it is written in cryptographic code, a New Kingdom practice also known from the tombs of Ramesses IX and Ramesses V. Its content is therefore not readily available to Egyptology; Coleman (2004) interprets it in terms of the creation and rebirth of the sun. The text is broken into three sections that incorporate other funerary texts, such as the Book of the Dead and the Amduat. /.</p><br>
<p>The text is notable for containing the first known depiction of the ouroboros symbol, in the form of two serpents (interpreted as manifestations of the deity Mehen) encircling the head and feet of a god, taken to represent the unified Ra-Osiris.</p><br>
<h3>Treasury</h3><br>
<p>The treasury was the burial chambers only side-room and was accessible by an unblocked doorway. It contained over 5,000 catalogued objects, most of them funerary and ritual in nature. Also found within the Annexe chamber were twenty six wine jars, containing the residue of vintage wines. The two largest objects found in this room were the kings elaborate canopic chest and a large statue of Anubis. Other items included numerous shrines containing gilded statuettes of the king and deities, model boats and two more chariots. This room also held two mummies of fetuses that some consider to have been stillborn offspring of the king.</p><br>
<h3>Annex</h3><br>
<p>The "annex", originally used to store oils, ointments, scents, foods and wine, was the last room to be cleared, from the end of October 1927 to the spring of 1928. Although quite small in size, it contained approximately 280 groups of objects, totaling more than 2,000 individual pieces. Also found within the Annexe chamber were twenty six wine jars, containing the residue of vintage wines.</p><br>
<h3>Robberies</h3><br>
<p>During the excavation it quickly became apparent that the tomb had been robbed at least twice. The first and second doors had both been breached in the top left-hand corner and subsequently resealed at least twice. The descending corridor had been filled with a packing of limestone chippings, presumably after the first robbery as the inner plaster door was unmarked by the chippings, and this filling had been tunneled through in a later robbery, or series of robberies.</p><br>
<p>The robberies had been discovered at some point, and the outer doors had been resealed, and the robbers&#39; tunnel refilled. The limestone chippings in the descending tunnel also covered some fragments of looted articles including jar lids, razors and wood fragments that had been presumably removed from the antechamber and stored in the tunnel during the first robbery. Some remnants appear to have been from a funerary meal, which was discovered by Davis in jars in KV54, which indicates that KV54 may have been used as a store for items recovered after the first re-closing of the tomb.</p><br>
<p>The annex was probably worst affected by the first robbery. The room was small and full of densely-packed items, which had been ransacked by a robber who had entered through a small hole in the outer door. The robber hurriedly disturbed the contents of the annex, emptied boxes and removed items. The robber or robbers seem to have been looking for metals, glass (then a valuable commodity), cloth, oils and cosmetics. The theft of oils and cosmetics suggests that the robbery was fairly contemporary with the burial, as the lifespan of these articles would have been limited. After this robbery was discovered, the doors were resealed and it is likely that the descending tunnel was filled with packed limestone chippings to deter future robberies.</p><br>
<p>The second robbery required much more organisation to clear the descending corridor - a tunnel was dug in the top-left-hand corner of the tunnel, and the outer door was penetrated by a large hole in the blocking. Carter estimated that it would have taken a team of men around eight hours to excavate the tunnel by passing back baskets of rubble. The second robbery penetrated the entire tomb, and Carter estimated that around 60% of the jewelry in the Treasury had been looted, along with precious metals. At some point, a knotted scarf containing a number of looted rings was dropped back into a box in the Antechamber, which led Carter to the conclusion that the robbery had perhaps been discovered whilst it was in progress, or that the thieves had been pursued and caught.</p><br>
<p>The tomb may have been hurriedly resealed (possibly to avoid drawing attention to the tomb) by the official Maya, as the signature of his assistant Djehutymose was found by Carter on a calcite stand in the Annexe. Upon resealing the tomb, the first and second resealings were marked with the same seal, bearing a design of a jackal over nine bound captives, which may indicate that they both took place within a short time interval after the closure of the tomb.</p><br>
<h3>Possible undiscovered chambers</h3><br>
<p>Research by prominent Egyptologist Nicholas Reeves (attached to the University of Arizona) suggested, in 2015, that there may be areas of the tomb worthy of further analysis. Reeves investigated high-resolution digital scans of the tomb taken by Madrid-based company Factum Arte that were used in the process of creating a facsimile of the tomb. Reeves noted markings in the plaster of the burial chamber that appeared to suggest the possibility of a small door in the west wall of the burial chamber, of the same dimensions as the Annexe door. According to Reeves, markings on the north wall could also suggest that the wall itself may partly be a blocking wall covering a void, possibly indicating that the "Antechamber" continues as a corridor beyond the north wall. Although the "doors" may just be uncompleted construction work, one possibility that has been suggested is that Tutankhamun is actually buried in the outer section of a larger tomb complex (similar to the tomb of Amenhotep III) that has been sealed off by the north wall, and that a further burial (possibly that of Nefertiti) may exist elsewhere in undiscovered areas of the tomb. In March 2016, a ground-penetrating radar scan revealed two empty spaces and what appear to be organic and metallic materials within them.</p><br>
<h3>Meteorite dagger</h3><br>
<p>A 2016 study suggested that the dagger buried with Tutankhamun was made from an iron meteorite, with similar proportions of metals (iron, nickel and cobalt) to one discovered near and named after Kharga Oasis.</p><br>
<h2>Present day</h2><br>
<p>The tomb is open for visitors, at an additional charge above that of the price of general access to the Valley of the Kings. The number of visitors was limited to 400 per day in 2008.</p><br>
<p>In 2010 the tomb was closed to the public while restoration work was undertaken by the Getty Conservation Institute, and was once again open to the public by 2013. The tomb is expected to be definitively closed to the public in the near future, but a reproduction will be placed nearby at the Valley of the Kings and will be available to the public.</p><br>
<p>Tomb KV5 is a subterranean, rock-cut tomb in the Valley of the Kings.</p><br>
<p>It belonged to the sons of Ramesses II. Though KV5 was partially excavated as early as 1825, its true extent was discovered in 1995 by Kent R. Weeks and his exploration team. The tomb is now known to be the largest in the Valley of the Kings. Weeks&#39; discovery is widely considered the most dramatic in the valley since the discovery of the tomb of Tutankhamun in 1922.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Standing near the entrance to the Valley, KV5 was robbed in antiquity. In addition, over the centuries, it suffered the fate of other low-lying tombs, which was to be filled with rubble washed down in the flash floods that accompany thunderstorms over the Valley.</p><br>
<p>The tomb was examined several times once exploration of the Valley in relatively modern times started, first in 1825 (by James Burton), and later in 1902 (by Howard Carter, discoverer of the tomb of Tutankhamun, who used KV5 only as a dumping ground). However, they were not able to penetrate past the first few rooms, and thus saw nothing unusual about the tomb.</p><br>
<p>It was not until the Theban Mapping Project, under Kent R. Weeks, decided to clear the tomb (in part to see if it would be damaged by proposed building works nearby, and in part so that it could be mapped) that the stage was set for the discovery of its true extent and nature. Although the works had begun in 1987, the first substantial finding came in 1995, after extensive clearing in the outer chambers of the tomb: approximately 70 rooms, lined along long corridors, running back into the hillside. The number of the rooms corresponds roughly to the number of sons the Pharaoh sired. This discovery caused a worldwide sensation and reignited popular interest in Egyptology. Findings so far include thousands of potsherds, ushabiti, faience beads, hieratic ostraca, glass vials, inlays and a large statue of Osiris, the god of the afterlife.</p><br>
<p>Further excavations have revealed that the tomb is even larger than was first thought, as it contains more corridors, with more rooms, running off from other parts of the tomb. At least 130 rooms or chambers have been discovered as of 2006 (only about 7% of which have been cleared), and work is still continuing on clearing the rest of the tomb.</p><br>
<p>In the proximity to the tomb of Ramesses II, this tomb contained most of his children, both male and female, including those who died in his lifetime in particular. The skull fragments of Amun-her-khepeshef, among others, were found inside and reconstituted.</p><br>
<h2>Further reading</h2><br>
<p>Kent R. Weeks, The Lost Tomb. New York: William Morrow, 1998. Includes a description of the discovery and excavation of KV5.</p><br>
<p>Kent R. Weeks, KV 5: A Preliminary Report on the Excavation of the Tomb of the Sons of Ramesses II in the Valley of the Kings. Cairo: American University Press, 2000</p><br>
<p>Reeves, N & Wilkinson, R.H. The Complete Valley of the Kings, 1996, Thames and Hudson, London</p><br>
<p>Siliotti, A. Guide to the Valley of the Kings and to the Theban Necropolises and Temples, 1996, A.A. Gaddis, Cairo, Dr M.Swales,</p><br>
<p>The Florida Keys are a coral cay archipelago located off the southern coast of Florida, forming the southernmost portion of the continental United States. They begin at the southeastern coast of the Florida peninsula, about 15 mi south of Miami, and extend in a gentle arc south-southwest and then westward to Key West, the westernmost of the inhabited islands, and on to the uninhabited Dry Tortugas. The islands lie along the Florida Straits, dividing the Atlantic Ocean to the east from the Gulf of Mexico to the northwest, and defining one edge of Florida Bay. At the nearest point, the southern part of Key West is just 90 mi from Cuba. The Florida Keys are between about 23.5 and 25.5 degrees North latitude.</p><br>
<p>More than 95 percent of the land area lies in Monroe County, but a small portion extends northeast into Miami-Dade County, such as Totten Key. The total land area is 137.3 square miles. As of the 2010 census the population was 73,090 with an average density of 532.34 /sqmi, although much of the population is concentrated in a few areas of much higher density, such as the city of Key West, which has 32% of the entire population of the Keys. The US Census population estimate for 2014 is 77,136.</p><br>
<p>The city of Key West is the county seat of Monroe County. The county consists of a section on the mainland which is almost entirely in Everglades National Park, and the Keys islands from Key Largo to the Dry Tortugas.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Early history</h3><br>
<p>The Keys were originally inhabited by Calusa and Tequesta Native Americans, and were later found and charted by Juan Ponce de León in 1513. De León named the islands Los Martires ("The Martyrs"), as they looked like suffering men from a distance. "Key" is derived from the Spanish word cayo, meaning small island. For many years, Key West was the largest town in Florida, and it grew prosperous on wrecking revenues. The isolated outpost was well located for trade with Cuba and the Bahamas, and was on the main trade route from New Orleans. Improved navigation led to fewer shipwrecks, and Key West went into a decline in the late nineteenth century.</p><br>
<h3>Overseas Railway</h3><br>
<p>The Keys were long accessible only by water. This changed with the completion of Henry Flaglers Overseas Railway in the early 1910s. Flagler, a major developer of Floridas Atlantic coast, extended his Florida East Coast Railway down to Key West with an ambitious series of over-sea railroad trestles. Three hurricanes disrupted the project in 1906, 1909, and 1910.</p><br>
<h3>Labor Day Hurricane of 1935</h3><br>
<p>The worst hurricane to strike the USA made landfall near Islamorada in the Upper Keys on Labor Day, Monday, September 2. Winds were estimated to have gusted to 200 mi/h, raising a storm surge more than 17.5 ft above sea level that washed over the islands. More than 400 people were killed, though some estimates place the number of deaths at more than 600.</p><br>
<p>The Labor Day Hurricane is one of only three hurricanes to make landfall at Category 5 strength on the USA coast since reliable weather records began (about 1850). The other storms were Hurricane Camille (1969) and Hurricane Andrew (1992).</p><br>
<p>In 1935, new bridges were under construction to connect a highway through the entire Keys. Hundreds of World War I veterans working on the roadway as part of a government relief program were housed in non-reinforced buildings in three construction camps in the Upper Keys. When the evacuation train failed to reach the camps before the storm, more than 200 veterans perished. Their deaths caused anger and charges of mismanagement that led to a Congressional investigation.</p><br>
<p>The storm also ended the 23-year run of the Overseas Railway; the damaged tracks were never rebuilt, and the Overseas Highway (USA Highway 1) replaced the railroad as the main transportation route from Miami to Key West.</p><br>
<h3>Seven Mile Bridge</h3><br>
<p>One of the longest bridges when it was built, the Seven Mile Bridge connects Knights Key (part of the city of Marathon in the Middle Keys) to Little Duck Key in the Lower Keys. The piling-supported concrete bridge is 35,862 ft or 6.79 miles (10.93 km) long. The current bridge bypasses Pigeon Key, a small island that housed workers building Henry Flaglers Florida East Coast Railway in the 1900s, that the original Seven Mile Bridge crossed. A 2.2 mi section of the old bridge remains for access to the island, although it was closed to vehicular traffic on March 4, 2008. The aging structure has been deemed unsafe by the Florida Department of Transportation. Costly repairs, estimated to be as much as $34 million, were expected to begin in July 2008. Monroe County was unable to secure a $17 million loan through the state infrastructure bank, delaying work for at least a year. On June 14, 2008, the old bridge section leading to Pigeon Key was closed to fishing as well. While still open to pedestrians — walking, biking and jogging — if the bridge were closed altogether, only a ferry subsidized by FDOT and managed by the county would transport visitors to the island.</p><br>
<h3>Overseas Highway</h3><br>
<p>After the destruction of the Keys railway by the Labor Day Hurricane of 1935, the railroad bridges, including the Seven Mile Bridge, were converted to automobile roadways. This roadway, USA Highway 1, became the Overseas Highway that runs from Key Largo south to Key West. Today this unique coastal highway allows those in automobiles to travel through the tropical islands of the Florida Keys and view exotic plants and animals found nowhere else on the US mainland. The Overseas Highway allows travelers access to the largest coral reef chain in the United States that runs through the Florida Keys.</p><br>
<h3>Cuban exiles</h3><br>
<p>Following the Cuban Revolution, many Cubans fled to South Florida. Key West traditionally had strong links with its neighbor ninety miles south by water, and large numbers of Cubans settled there. The Keys still attract Cubans leaving their home country, and stories of "rafters" coming ashore are not uncommon.</p><br>
<h3>Conch Republic</h3><br>
<p>In 1982, the United States Border Patrol had established a roadblock and inspection points on US Highway 1, stopping all northbound traffic returning to the mainland at Florida City, to search vehicles for illegal drugs and illegal immigrants. The Key West City Council repeatedly complained about the roadblocks, which were a major inconvenience for people traveling from Key West, and hurt the Keys&#39; important tourism industry.</p><br>
<p>After various unsuccessful complaints and attempts to get a legal injunction against the blockade failed in federal court in Miami, on April 23, 1982, Key West mayor Dennis Wardlow and the city council declared the independence of the city of Key West, calling it the "Conch Republic". After one minute of secession, he (as "Prime Minister") surrendered to an officer of the Key West Naval Air Station (NAS), and requested one billion ($1,000,000,000) dollars in "foreign aid".</p><br>
<p>The stunt succeeded in generating great publicity for the Keys&#39; plight, and the inspection station roadblock was removed. It also provided a new source of revenue for the Keys, and the Conch Republic has participated in later protests.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The Florida Keys are the exposed portions of an ancient coral reef.</p><br>
<p>The northernmost island arising from the ancient reef formation is Elliott Key, in Biscayne National Park. North of Elliott Key are several small transitional keys, composed of sand built up around small areas of exposed ancient reef. Further north, Key Biscayne and places north are barrier islands, built up of sand.</p><br>
<p>The Florida Keys have taken their present form as the result of the drastic changes in sea level associated with recent glaciations or ice ages. Beginning some 130,000 years ago the Sangamonian Stage raised sea levels to approximately 25 feet (7.5 m) above the current level. All of southern Florida was covered by a shallow sea. Several parallel lines of reef formed along the edge of the submerged Florida plateau, stretching south and then west from the present Miami area to what is now the Dry Tortugas. This reef formed the Key Largo limestone that is exposed on the surface from Soldier Key (midway between Key Biscayne and Elliott Key) to the southeast portion of Big Pine Key and the Newfound Harbor Keys. The types of coral that formed Key Largo limestone can be identified on the exposed surface of these keys.</p><br>
<p>Starting about 100,000 years ago the Wisconsin glaciation began lowering sea levels, exposing the coral reef and surrounding marine sediments. By 15,000 years ago the sea level had dropped to 300 to 350 ft below the contemporary level. The exposed reefs and sediments were heavily eroded. Acidic water, which can result from decaying vegetation, dissolves limestone. Some of the dissolved limestone redeposited as a denser cap rock, which can be seen as outcrops overlying the Key Largo and Miami limestones throughout the Keys. The limestone that eroded from the reef formed oolites in the shallow sea behind the reef, and together with the skeletal remains of bryozoans, formed the Miami limestone that is the current surface bedrock of the lower Florida peninsula and the lower keys from Big Pine Key to Key West. To the west of Key West the ancient reef is covered by recent calcareous sand.</p><br>
<p>Just offshore of the Florida Keys along the edge of the Florida Straits is the Florida Reef (also known as the Florida Reef Tract). The Florida Reef extends 270 km from Fowey Rocks just east of Soldier Key to just south of the Marquesas Keys. It is the third-largest barrier reef system in the world.</p><br>
<h2>Environment</h2><br>
<p>The climate and environment of the Florida Keys are closer to that of the Caribbean than the rest of Florida, though unlike the Caribbean&#39;s volcanic islands, the Keys were built by plants and animals. The Upper Keys islands are composed of sandy-type accumulations of limestone grains produced by plants and marine organisms. The Lower Keys are the remnants of large coral reefs, which became fossilized and exposed as sea level declined.</p><br>
<p>The natural habitats of the Keys are upland forests, inland wetlands and shoreline zones. Soil ranges from sand to marl to rich, decomposed leaf litter. In some places, "caprock" (the eroded surface of coral formations) covers the ground. Rain falling through leaf debris becomes acidic and dissolves holes in the limestone, where soil accumulates and trees root.</p><br>
<h3>Flora and fauna</h3><br>
<p>The Florida Keys have distinctive plant and animals species, some found nowhere else in the United States, as the Keys define the northern extent of their ranges. The climate also allows many imported plants to thrive. Nearly any houseplant known to commerce, and most landscape plants of the South, can thrive in the Keys climate. Some exotic species which arrived as landscape plants now invade and threaten natural areas.</p><br>
<p>The native flora of the Keys is diverse, including members of both temperate families, such as red maple (Acer rubrum), slash pine (Pinus elliottii var. densa) and oaks (Quercus spp.), growing at the southern end of their ranges, and tropical families, including mahogany (Swietenia mahagoni), gumbo limbo (Bursera simaruba), stoppers (Eugenia spp.), Jamaican dogwood (Piscidia piscipula), and many others, which grow only in tropical climates. Coconut palms Cocos nucifera is endemic, and can reach massive height and size across the islands. Several other types of palms are native to the Florida Keys, including the Florida thatch palm Thrinax radiata, which grows to its greatest size in Florida on the islands of the Keys. Key Lime is endemic to the Florida Keys, growing vigorously and producing golf-ball-size yellow fruit which is particularly and uniquely fragrant. Bougainvillea, hibiscus, and papaya flourish across the Keys reaching massive size unequaled anywhere on the US mainland.</p><br>
<p>The Keys are also home to unique animal species, including the American crocodile, Key deer, protected by the National Key Deer Refuge, and the Key Largo woodrat. The Keys is the northernmost range of the American crocodile, which is endemic from South America to Panama, north to the Florida Keys. The Key Largo Woodrat is found only in the northern part of its namesake island, and is a focus of management activities in Crocodile Lake National Wildlife Refuge. About 70 miles (110 km) west of Key West is Dry Tortugas National Park, one of the most isolated and therefore well-preserved in the world.</p><br>
<p>The waters surrounding the Keys are part of a protected area known as the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>The climate of the Florida Keys is tropical savanna (Köppen climate classification: Aw), and other than some areas of coastal Miami, the Florida Keys are the only areas in Florida to have never reported a frost since settlement. There are two main "seasons" in the Florida Keys, a hot and wet season from June through October, and a dry season from November though April, that features little rainfall, sunny skies, and warm breezy conditions.</p><br>
<h3>Tropical cyclones</h3><br>
<p>The Keys are occasionally threatened by tropical storms and hurricanes, leading to evacuations to the mainland. Hurricane Georges, after tearing up much of the Caribbean, caused damage and extensive flooding in the Lower Keys in 1998, before making landfall in Mississippi. In 2005, Hurricanes Katrina, Rita and Wilma affected the Keys (although none made a direct hit), causing widespread damage and flooding. The most severe hurricane to hit the area was the Labor Day Hurricane of 1935, a Category 5 hurricane.</p><br>
<p>Tropical cyclones present special dangers and challenges to the entire Keys. Because no area of the islands is more than 20 ft above sea level (and many are only a few feet elevation), and water surrounds the islands, nearly every neighborhood is subject to flooding as well as hurricane winds. In response, many homes in the Keys are built on concrete stilts with the first floor being not legally habitable and enclosed by breakaway walls that are not strongly attached to the rest of the house. Nonetheless, Monroe County, as reported in the Federal Register, has estimated that there are between 8,000 and 12,000 illegal enclosures inhabited by people.</p><br>
<p>Because of the threat from storm surge, evacuations are routinely ordered when the National Weather Service issues a hurricane watch or warning, and are sometimes ordered for a tropical storm warning. Evacuation of the Keys depends on causeways and the two-lane highway to the mainland. Time estimates for evacuating the entire Keys range from 12 to 24 hours. Evacuation estimates are significant in emergency planning, of course, but also because they are a factor in local and state regulations for controlling development. The building permit allocation was increased in 2005 when local governments reduced estimates for evacuation.</p><br>
<p>On September 10, 2017, Hurricane Irma made landfall in Cudjoe Key. The storm destroyed an estimated 25% of the houses on the Keys and another 65% suffered major damage. Most residents had evacuated before the storm hit the area. On September 12, parts of the Keys were still inaccessible by causeway and some areas were closed to the public. Governor Rick Scott reported devastation; most areas were without power or water. The damage was the worst in the Lower Keys, though less severe in Key West; parts of the Lower Keys may be uninhabitable for months.</p><br>
<h2>Major islands</h2><br>
<p>USA Highway 1, the "Overseas Highway", runs over most of the inhabited islands of the Florida Keys. The islands are listed in order from southwest to north. Mile markers are listed for keys that the Overseas Highway runs across or near.</p><br>
<p>Dry Tortugas</p><br>
<p>Marquesas Keys</p><br>
<p>Sunset Key</p><br>
<p>Wisteria Island</p><br>
<p>Key West (MM 0-4)</p><br>
<p>Fleming Key</p><br>
<p>Sigsbee Park (off to the north at MM 2¾)</p><br>
<p>Stock Island (MM 5)</p><br>
<p>Raccoon Key (off to the north at MM 5¼)</p><br>
<p>Boca Chica Key (MM 7-8)</p><br>
<p>Rockland Key (MM 9)</p><br>
<p>East Rockland Key (MM 9½)</p><br>
<p>Big Coppitt Key (MM 10)</p><br>
<p>Geiger Key (off to the south at MM 10¾)</p><br>
<p>Shark Key (off to the north at MM 11¼)</p><br>
<p>Saddlebunch Keys (MM 12-16)</p><br>
<p>Lower Sugarloaf Key (MM 17)</p><br>
<p>Park Key (MM 18)</p><br>
<p>Sugarloaf Key (MM 19-20)</p><br>
<p>Cudjoe Key (MM 21-23)</p><br>
<p>Knockemdown Key</p><br>
<p>Summerland Key (MM 24-25)</p><br>
<p>Ramrod Key (MM 27)</p><br>
<p>Middle Torch Key, Big Torch Key (off to the north at MM 27¾)</p><br>
<p>Little Torch Key (MM 28½)</p><br>
<p>Big Pine Key (MM 30-32)</p><br>
<p>No Name Key</p><br>
<p>Scout Key (MM 34-35), formerly known as West Summerland Key</p><br>
<p>Bahia Honda Key (MM 37-38)</p><br>
<p>Ohio Key (MM 38¾), also known as Sunshine Key</p><br>
<p>Missouri Key (MM 39¼)</p><br>
<p>Little Duck Key (MM 39¾)</p><br>
<p>The Seven Mile Bridge (MM 40-46¾) separates the Lower Keys from the Middle Keys.</p><br>
<p>Pigeon Key (off to the north near MM 45; access is at MM 46¾)</p><br>
<p>Knights Key (MM 47)</p><br>
<p>Vaca Key (MM 48-53)</p><br>
<p>Boot Key (off to the south at MM 48; bridge closed)</p><br>
<p>Fat Deer Key (MM 53¼-55)</p><br>
<p>Shelter Key (off to the south at MM 53¾)</p><br>
<p>Long Point Key (MM 56)</p><br>
<p>Crawl Key (MM 56½)</p><br>
<p>Grassy Key (MM 58-60)</p><br>
<p>(Knights, Vaca, Boot, Long Point, Crawl, and Grassy Keys, as well as most of Fat Deer Key, are incorporated in the city of Marathon. The remaining portion of Fat Deer Key and most of Shelter Key are part of Key Colony Beach.)</p><br>
<p>Duck Key (MM 61)</p><br>
<p>Conch Key (MM 62-63)</p><br>
<p>The Long Key Bridge (MM 63¼-65¼) separates the Middle Keys from the Upper Keys.</p><br>
<p>Long Key (MM 66-70), formerly known as Rattlesnake Key</p><br>
<p>Fiesta Key (off to the north at MM 70)</p><br>
<p>Craig Key (MM 72)</p><br>
<p>Lower Matecumbe Key (MM 74-77)</p><br>
<p>Lignumvitae Key</p><br>
<p>Indian Key</p><br>
<p>Indian Key Fill (MM 79)</p><br>
<p>Tea Table (MM 79½)</p><br>
<p>Upper Matecumbe Key (MM 80-83)</p><br>
<p>Windley Key (MM 85)</p><br>
<p>Plantation Key (MM 86-90)</p><br>
<p>(Lower Matecumbe through Plantation Keys are incorporated as Islamorada, Village of Islands. The "towns" of Key Largo, North Key Largo and Tavernier, all on the island of Key Largo, are not incorporated.)</p><br>
<p>Key Largo (MM 91-107)</p><br>
<p>Cross Key (MM 109-112)</p><br>
<p>All keys north of Broad Creek are in Biscayne National Park and Miami-Dade County. The following are "true" Florida Keys (exposed ancient coral reefs):</p><br>
<p>Old Rhodes Key</p><br>
<p>Totten Key</p><br>
<p>Reid Key</p><br>
<p>Rubicon Keys</p><br>
<p>Adams Key</p><br>
<p>Elliott Key</p><br>
<p>The following are "transitional keys", made of exposed ancient reef surrounded by sand.</p><br>
<p>Sands Key</p><br>
<p>Boca Chita Key</p><br>
<p>Ragged Keys</p><br>
<p>Soldier Key</p><br>
<p>Key Biscayne is not one of the Florida Keys, but the first of the Atlantic barrier islands.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>The main chain of Keys islands can be traveled by motor vehicles on the Overseas Highway, a 127 mi section of USA 1, which runs from Key West to Fort Kent, Maine in its entirety. The highway was built parallel to the original route of the Overseas Railway, which was not rebuilt following the Labor Day hurricane of 1935. Even before the hurricane, road sections and highway bridges allowed automobile traffic to travel from Miami to Lower Matecumbe Key, where a car ferry connected with another roadway section through the Lower Keys. Following the hurricane, some of the original railway bridges were converted to carry the highway roadbeds. These bridges were used until the 1980s, when new highway bridges were built alongside. Many of the original railroad and highway bridges remain today as pedestrian fishing piers.</p><br>
<h3>Public transportation</h3><br>
<p>The Florida Keys has public bus transportation.</p><br>
<h3>Road hazards</h3><br>
<p>Despite this reconstruction, USA 1 was not widened on a large scale, and today most of the route consists of just two lanes. Due to their tropical climate, the Florida Keys attract several hundred thousand tourists annually. While some visitors arrive via Key West International Airport and Florida Keys Marathon Airport in Marathon, cruise ship or ferry from Miami, Fort Myers, or Marco Island, Florida, the vast majority of tourists drive down from the mainland on USA 1. This influx of traffic, coupled with the two-lane nature of USA 1 through most of its length in the Keys, and the fact that no alternative road routes are available mean that Monroe County has the highest per capita rate of fatal automobile accidents in the state of Florida.</p><br>
<h2>Culture and recreation</h2><br>
<p>The major industries are fishing and tourism, including ecotourism, with many visitors scuba diving in the area&#39;s protected waters. A new ferry now takes riders between Key West and Fort Myers, due north on the mainland, along the western edge of Florida Bay.</p><br>
<p>The Gran Paradiso  is a mountain in the Graian Alps in Italy, located between the Aosta Valley and Piedmont regions.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The peak, the 7th highest mountain in the Graian Alps, with an elevation of 4,061 m, is close to Mont Blanc on the nearby border with France. In the SOIUSA (International Standardized Mountain Subdivision of the Alps) the mountain belongs to an alpine subsection called "North-Eastern Graian Alps" (It:Alpi del Gran Paradiso; Fr:Alpes du Grand-Paradis) and also gives its name to the gruppo del Gran Paradiso.</p><br>
<p>While the Mont Blanc massif straddles the border between France and Italy, the Gran Paradiso is the only mountain whose summit reaches over 4,000 metres that is entirely within Italian territory.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The summit was first reached on September 4, 1860 by J. J. Cowell, W. Dundas, J. Payot and J. Tairraz. By high Alpine mountaineering standards, Gran Paradiso is considered one of the least difficult 4,000 meter peaks, although it has one of the highest ascents of 1,300 meters on the summit day. The final 60 meters cover rocky terrain and require mountaineering skills. Climbs normally start from either the Refuge Frédéric Chabod or the Refuge Victor-Emmanuel II. The latter is named after Victor Emmanuel II of Italy who created the Gran Paradiso royal reserve in 1856, presently the site of the Gran Paradiso National Park.</p><br>
<h2>Nature conservation</h2><br>
<p>Gran Paradiso is located in the Gran Paradiso National Park, an Italian national park named after the mountain. On the French side of the border, the park is continued by the Vanoise National Park.</p><br>
<p>The Brede is an English river in East Sussex. It flows into the Rock Channel  and then onto the River Rother at Rye, Sussex. It takes its name from the village of Brede, which lies between Hastings and Tenterden.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The river takes its name from the village of Brede. The village is on the north bank of the river, and its name in Old English means breadth, as it overlooks the wide river valley. Prior to the fifteenth century, the river was known as the Ee or Ree, which simply means river in Old English. A new channel was then constructed for much of its course downstream from its junction with Doleham Ditch, slightly to the north of the Ee, and running parallel with it, which was for many years known as the Channel, but subsequently became the Brede.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Brede is known to have been used for navigation from early times, when boats could reach Sedlescombe. Lead was carried for Battle Abbey, and in the Tudor period, an iron furnace was built at Brede, which continued to operate until 1766. Between 1747 and 1766, boats brought iron ore to the furnaces from Strand Wharf in Rye, and transported guns which had been manufactured from the iron back down the river. There was also a trade in groceries, moving up the river.</p><br>
<p>Access to the sea from Winchelsea and Rye was continually changing, as the whole area is subject to deposition of shingle and silt. Winchelsea once had a harbour, but by the 1550s, it had been abandoned as a port. The future of the port of Rye, a little further to the north, was in doubt by 1600, and Camber Castle, which had once protected the entrances to Winchelsea and Rye harbours was abandoned in the 1640s, as it could no longer serve that function, due to the changing channels. The idea of cutting a new channel was first suggested by the Italian engineer Frederico Genebelli in 1593, but was rejected by Rye Corporation, who thought it would enhance the port of Winchelsea, more than the port of Rye. Commissioners from the Royal Navy and Trinity House decided that Rye Harbour was of no further use in 1698.</p><br>
<p>However, it 1723, an Act of Parliament was obtained, which authorised a new cut to be made from the Brede near Winchelsea to the sea. The plans are not clearly understood, for the records of the Harbour Commissioners are often confused and garbled. The new channel would run from the right-angled bend where the present river turns northwards towards Rye, and run to the south, broadly following Sea Road and Dogs Hill Road, but a little further to the east. The Harbour Commissioners consulted the naval officer and civil engineer John Perry, who estimated that the project would cost £13,732, and a second Act of Parliament was obtained in 1724. £4,000 was borrowed from the Bank of England, to allow the work to start, and one of the first tasks was the construction of a drawbridge over the existing Winchelsea Channel of the River Brede, so that access from Rye to the new works was possible. John Reynolds completed the bridge in 1725. Meanwhile, Perry had marked out the route, and the process of buying the land began.</p><br>
<p>The canal was to be 20 ft deep at high water on spring tides, which would make it suitable for ships of 300 tons, with a draught of up to 16 ft. In the lower half there would be a scouring sluice and navigation gates. The canal would be 150 ft wide above the sluice and 200 ft wide below it. Work on the scouring sluice and the reservoir which would store the water for scouring of the channel was undertaken by Humphrey Smith in 1727 and 1728. Piers were to be constructed where the canal met the sea, and the west pier was the first to be started in 1728. Building of the foundations was overseen by Edward Rubie, Perrys foreman, and the contract for the main stonework was awarded to Christopher Cass and Andrews Jelfe. They completed the work in 1730. Perry then left the project, and Rubie went on to supervise the construction of the east pier and the grand sluice, although it is thought that his working drawings were based on Perrys original plans. The grand sluice was the largest of its kind at the time, having five gates, each of which was 6 ft wide, and had huge abutments and a large central pier. Next to it was a navigation channel, which was 40 ft wide, and had a pair of pointed gates. By 1733 some £20,000 had been spent on the project, and after a brief pause to raise some more money, work resumed under the supervision of Robert Cooper.</p><br>
<p>The canal had initially only been excavated to a depth of 8 ft, and Cooper oversaw the deepening of the channel to 20 ft. Wharfs were built, and the canal had been excavated to its full depth for 275 yd from the piers at its southern end by the time Rubie left the project in 1748. Cooper continued making the channel deeper, built a 200 ft jetty on the end of the west pier, and finally removed the shingle bank which kept the water out of the workings. The project had cost £42,000 by this point. The Commissioners then attempted to obtain another Act of Parliament, to authorise additional charges to shipping to cover the cost of the work. They succeeded on a second attempt in 1764.</p><br>
<p>Meanwhile, the Commissioners asked for advice from the civil engineer John Smeaton, who recommended that the Brede, the Tillingham and the Rother should all be diverted into the new channel. He suggested that a new course for the Rother should be cut to the north of Rye, but was never involved in the practical management of the scheme. A new channel was cut to the south of the town. The historian John Collard has suggested that this latter phase was marked by incompetence and failure at a managerial level. The Commissioners ordered that the old channel was not to be used after 14 July 1787, with traffic passing up the new harbour to the Strand Wharf. It was not entirely successful, as the harbour mouth still suffered from shingle deposition and silting. A wet autumn in 1787 caused extensive flooding of the levels, and the Harbour Commissioners, many of whom were also Commissioners for the various levels, resolved to abandon the new harbour on 6 November 1787, and the old route to the sea was re-opened. After 63 years work, the new harbour was only used for four months. The entrance lock to the Brede at Rye was built in the following year, and the merchants of Rye thanked the Commissioners in April 1789 for restoring "the Ancient Harbour of Rye."</p><br>
<p>When the Napoleonic Wars with the French began in 1803, less than a year after the signing of the Treaty of Amiens, which had ended the previous war with France, there were fears that the French might invade England. Consequently a number of Martello towers were built, and the Royal Military Canal was proposed. This became a project for a defensive canal from Hythe, Kent in the east to Cliff End, near Pett in East Sussex. Two sections were new, with the middle part of it consisting of the River Rother from Iden Lock to Rye, and the Brede from Rye to Winchelsea. By the time it was completed in 1809, the threat of invasion had passed.</p><br>
<p>The Commissioners of Sewers for the Levels of Brede and Pett were required, under powers granted by the Rye Harbour Act of 1833, to ensure that Brede Sluice was navigable, and that barges could travel up the river as far as Brede Bridge. This was carried out, as there is evidence that barges operated on the river during the nineteenth century. In 1903, when the Brede Valley Waterworks was being built, materials were transported by barge to a wharf immediately upstream of Brede Bridge. By the time of the Land Drainage Act 1930, the land drainage function of the rivers was more important, and from 1933, river levels were reduced. A regulation to abolish the right of navigation became effective in 1934, although boats continued to deliver fuel to the Brede Valley Waterworks until 1935, when a road was built from the village to the works. Navigation is still possible in the winter months, but during the summer, Udimore sluice is used to retain water in the upper river, preventing the use of boats on parts of the river.</p><br>
<h2>Route</h2><br>
<p>The Brede rises from several springs to the south of Netherfield, close to the 360 ft and 330 ft contours. They join together, and flow initially to the south east, before turning to the north east, to pass under a minor road and the A2100, by which time the river is already below the 100 ft contour. At Pond Bay, Rat Gill joins the river, which turns to the east, to pass under a railway bridge on the Hastings Line. The River Line joins it at Whatlington, as do several more streams as it passes under the A21 and B2244 roads to the south of Sedlescombe. To the south of the river is the Pestalozzi International Village, formerly the Pestalozzi Children&#39;s Village, set up by a Trust following the end of the Second World War. The river channel is now flanked by drainage ditches on both sides, and soon drops below the 16 ft contour.</p><br>
<p>A little further to the east is Brede Valley Waterworks, situated on the north bank. It was built in the early 1900s, and parts of it are grade II listed. The red-brick engine house still contains one of the original Tangye triple-expansion steam engines supplied in 1904, while a later building, dating from the 1930s, houses a Worthington-Simpson pumping engine dating from 1940. Before Brede Bridge, there is a derelict pumping station, which formerly pumped water from the drains into the main channel. An area of 60 acre is being returned to marshland, and water levels are gradually rising to recreate a traditional waterside landscape. The bridge is a modern structure with a flat concrete deck, which was built to replace a hump-backed bridge during the Second World War, to allow tanks to cross it. Beyond the bridge, Doleham Ditch joins from the south, and the Marshlink railway line which has followed the valley of a stream northwards, turns to the east to follow the Brede Valley. The valley floor widens, and a network of drains keeps this area, which is known as the Brede Level, from flooding.</p><br>
<p>As the river passes to the north of Icklesham, the railway crosses to the north bank of the channel. Another pumping station pumps water into the river from a network of drains to the south of the river, which soon reaches Winchelsea. Large areas of the town are listed as a Scheduled Ancient Monument Station Road, which leads to Winchelsea railway station, crosses the river at Ferry Bridge, and the A259 Royal Military Road, built in 1805 as part of the defensive Royal Military Canal crosses at Strand Bridge, on the eastern side of the town. Immediately beyond the bridge, the western section of the Royal Military Canal heads southwards towards Cliff End, near Pett. Like the town, it is an ancient monument. The Saxon Shore Way long distance footpath follows its eastern bank, and continues to the south of the river.</p><br>
<p>After two meanders, and just before the channel turns sharply to the north, was the junction with the abortive New Harbour. It followed the course of the later Old River Way. As the river progresses towards Rye, there is a sewage treatment works on the east bank, and the remains of Camber Castle, which was built in 1538 by King Henry VIII, but abandoned in 1640 after the sea retreated. The structure and the grounds are a Scheduled Ancient Monument, and the remains have been restored and repaired since they were bought by the Department of National Heritage in 1977. To the north of the castle is Castle Water Nature Reserve. The site covers 220 acre, and was bought by the Sussex Wildlife Trust in 1992. Gravel was extracted there between 1935 and 1970, and it now provides a valuable wetland habitat for birds. Brede Sluice is actually a lock, and leads into the Rock Channel, which was cut around the south side of Rye in the 1760s. At its far end, the river flows into the River Rother.</p><br>
<h2>Points of interest</h2><br>
<h2>Bibliography</h2><br>
<p>(Chapter 10 of )</p><br>
<p>The Nevado del Ruiz, also known as La Mesa de Herveo , or Kumanday in the language of the local pre-Columbian indigenous people, is a volcano located on the border of the departments of Caldas and Tolima in Colombia, about 129 km west of the capital city Bogotá. It is a stratovolcano, composed of many layers of lava alternating with hardened volcanic ash and other pyroclastic rocks. Nevado del Ruiz has been active for about two million years, since the Early Pleistocene or Late Pliocene, with three major eruptive periods. The current volcanic cone formed during the present eruptive period, which began 150 thousand years ago.</p><br>
<p>The volcano usually generates Plinian eruptions, which produce swift-moving currents of hot gas and rock called pyroclastic flows. These eruptions often cause massive lahars (mud and debris flows), which pose a threat to human life and the environment. The impact of such an eruption is increased as the hot gas and lava melt the mountain&#39;s snowcap, adding large quantities of water to the flow. On November 13, 1985, a small eruption produced an enormous lahar that buried and destroyed the town of Armero in Tolima, causing an estimated 25,000 deaths. This event later became known as the Armero tragedy—the deadliest lahar in recorded history. Similar but less deadly incidents occurred in 1595 and 1845, consisting of a small explosive eruption followed by a large lahar.</p><br>
<p>The volcano is part of Los Nevados National Natural Park, which also contains several other volcanoes. The summit of Nevado del Ruiz is covered by large glaciers. The volcano continues to pose a threat to the nearby towns and villages, and it is estimated that up to 500,000 people could be at risk from lahars from future eruptions.</p><br>
<h2>Geography and geology</h2><br>
<p>Nevado del Ruiz, which lies about 129 km west of Bogotá, is part of the Andes mountain range. The volcano is part of the Ruiz–Tolima volcanic massif (or Cordillera Central), a group of five ice-capped volcanoes which includes the Tolima, Santa Isabel, Quindio and Machin volcanoes. The massif is located at the intersection of four faults, some of which still are active.</p><br>
<p>Nevado del Ruiz lies within the Pacific Ring of Fire, a region that encircles the Pacific Ocean and contains some of the world&#39;s most active volcanoes. It is the third most northerly of the volcanoes lying in the North Volcanic Zone of the Andean Volcanic Belt, which contains 75 of the 204 Holocene-age volcanoes in South America. The Andean Volcanic Belt is produced by the eastward subduction of the oceanic Nazca Plate beneath the South American continental plate. As is the case for many subduction-zone volcanoes, Nevado del Ruiz can generate explosive Plinian eruptions with associated pyroclastic flows that can melt snow and glaciers near the summit, producing large and sometimes devastating lahars (mud and debris flows).</p><br>
<p>Like many other Andean volcanoes, Nevado del Ruiz is a stratovolcano: a voluminous, roughly conical volcano consisting of many strata of hardened lava and tephra including volcanic ash. Its lavas are andesitic–dacitic in composition. The modern volcanic cone comprises five lava domes, all constructed within the caldera of an ancestral Ruiz volcano: Nevado El Cisne, Alto de la Laguna, La Olleta, Alto la Pirana, and Alto de Santano. It covers an area of more than 200 km&sup2, stretching 65 km from east to west. The mountain&#39;s broad summit includes the Arenas crater, which is 1 km in diameter and 240 m deep.</p><br>
<p>The summit of the volcano has steep slopes inclining from 20 to 30 degrees. At lower elevations, the slopes become less steep; their inclination is about 10 degrees. From there on, foothills stretch almost to the edge of the Magdalena River, north of the volcano and the Cauca River to the west. On the two major sides of the summit, headwalls show where past rock avalanches occurred. At times, ice on the summit has melted, generating devastating lahars, including the continents deadliest eruption in 1985. On the volcanos southwest flank is the pyroclastic cone La Olleta, which is not currently active, but may have erupted in historical times.</p><br>
<h3>Glaciers</h3><br>
<p>The summit of Nevado del Ruiz is covered by glaciers (nevado means "snow-covered" in Spanish), which formed over many thousands of years, and have generally retreated since the last glacial maximum. From 28,000 to 21,000 years ago, glaciers occupied about 1,500 km&sup2; of the Ruiz–Tolima massif. As late as 12,000 years ago, when the ice sheets from the last glacial period were retreating, they still covered 800 km&sup2;. During the Little Ice Age, which lasted from about 1600 to 1900 CE, the ice cap covered approximately 100 km&sup2;.</p><br>
<p>Since then the glaciers have retreated further because of atmospheric warming. Since the 1985 eruption, which destroyed about 10% of the summit ice cover, the area of Nevado del Ruiz covered by glaciers has halved—from 17 to 21 square kilometers just after the eruption to about 10 km&sup2; in 2003. The glaciers reached altitudes as low as 4,500 m in 1985 but have now retreated to elevations of 4,800 -.</p><br>
<p>The ice cap is approximately 50 m thick on average. It is thickest in parts of the summit plateau and under the Nereides Glacier on the southwestern slopes, where it is as deep as 190 m. Glaciers on the northern and, to a lesser extent, the eastern slopes lost the most ice in the 1985 eruption, and therefore reach only up to 30 m deep. The deep ice covering the summit plateau may hide a caldera. Five domes ringing the summit plateau have emerged as the ice has retreated.</p><br>
<p>The meltwater from the glaciers drains primarily to the Cauca River and Magdalena River via the western and eastern flanks of the volcano, respectively. Runoff from these glaciers and those on the surrounding volcanoes is a source of fresh water for forty surrounding towns, and Colombian scientists and government officials are concerned about the towns&#39; water supply should the glaciers melt completely.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>Nevado del Ruiz is generally poorly forested because of its high elevation, and its forest cover decreases with increasing elevation. At lower elevations, well-developed mesic forests (20–35 meters / 66–110 ft high) are present. Above these but below the tree line, parts of the volcano are covered with dwarf forests 3 – high. Above the tree line, in the Páramo zone, the vegetation is dominated by plants such as bunchgrass and Espeletia. Regional vegetation consists of different families of woody plants, including Rubiaceae, Leguminosae, Melastomataceae, Lauraceae, and Moraceae. Flowers such as Polypodiaceae s.l., Araceae, Poaceae, Asteraceae, Piperaceae, and Orchidaceae are also present in the region.</p><br>
<p>Animals living on the volcano include the mountain tapir and spectacled bear, both of which are designated as threatened. Other animals inhabiting the surrounding region include the rufous-fronted parakeet, bearded helmetcrest, and Herveo plump toad. The volcano is home to 27 species of birds endemic to Colombia, with 14 of these species confined to the region around the volcano. 15 bird species in the area are considered threatened.</p><br>
<h2>Los Nevados National Park</h2><br>
<p>Nevado del Ruiz is one of several stratovolcanoes within Los Nevados National Natural Park, a national park located west of Bogotá in the centre of the Colombian Andes. The park is a popular tourist destination and contains several tourist shelters. The slopes of the volcano are used for winter sports, and nearby Lake Otún offers trout fishing.</p><br>
<p>In 1868–1869, German geologists Wilhelm Reiss and Alphons Stübel were the first to attempt to climb Ruiz. In 1936, W. Cunet and Augusto Gansser-Biaggi made the first successful ascent, partly by ski; they repeated the ascent in 1939.</p><br>
<h2>Eruptive history</h2><br>
<p>The first eruptions of Nevado del Ruiz occurred about 1.8 million years ago at the beginning of the Pleistocene epoch. Three primary eruption periods in the history of the massif have been identified: ancestral, older and present. During the ancestral period between one million to two million years ago, a complex of large stratovolcanoes was created. Between 1.0 million and 0.8 million years ago, they partially collapsed, forming large (5–10 km wide) calderas. During the older period, which lasted from 0.8 million to 0.2 million years ago, a new complex of large stratovolcanoes developed (including Older Ruiz, Tolima, Quindio, and Santa Isabel). Once again explosive summit calderas formed from 0.2 million to 0.15 million years ago.</p><br>
<p>The present period began about 150,000 years ago and involved the development of the present volcanic edifice through the emplacement of lava domes made of andesite and dacite (igneous rocks) inside older calderas. During the past 11,000 years, Nevado del Ruiz passed through at least 12 eruption stages, which included multiple slope failures (rock avalanches), pyroclastic flows and lahars leading to partial destruction of the summit domes. During the past several thousand years, eruptions of the volcanoes in the Ruiz–Tolima massif have mostly been small, and the pyroclastic flow deposits have been much less voluminous than during the Pleistocene. Since the volcano&#39;s earlier eruptions are not recorded, volcanologists have used tephrochronology to date them.</p><br>
<p>During recorded history, eruptions have consisted primarily of a central vent eruption (in the caldera) followed by an explosive eruption, then lahars. Ruiz&#39;s earliest identified Holocene eruption was about 6660 BC, and further eruptions occurred in 1245 BC ± 150 years (dated through radiocarbon dating), about 850 BC, 200 BC ± 100 years, 350 AD ± 300 years, 675 AD ± 50 years, in 1350, 1541 (perhaps), 1570, 1595, 1623, 1805, 1826, 1828 (perhaps), 1829, 1831, 1833 (perhaps), 1845, 1916, December 1984 – March 1985, September 1985 – July 1991, and possibly in April 1994. Many of these eruptions involved a central vent eruption, a flank vent eruption, and a phreatic (steam) explosion. Ruiz is the second-most active volcano in Colombia after Galeras.</p><br>
<h3>1595 lahar</h3><br>
<p>On the morning of March 12, 1595, Nevado del Ruiz erupted. The episode consisted of three Plinian eruptions, which were heard up to 100 km from the summit of the volcano. A large amount of ash was ejected, which completely darkened the surrounding area. The volcano also erupted lapilli (a form of tephra) and pumice bombs. In total, the eruption produced 0.16 km of tephra. The 1595 eruption was the last major eruption of Nevado del Ruiz before 1985. The 1595 and 1985 eruptions were similar in many respects, including in the chemical composition of the erupted material.</p><br>
<h3>1845 lahar</h3><br>
<p>On the morning of February 19, 1845, a large earthquake resulted in a substantial mudflow. This mudflow flowed down the valley of the Lagunillas River for approximately 70 km, spilling out of the river channel and killing much of the local population. After reaching an alluvial fan, the mudflow split into two branches. The larger portion of it joined the Lagunillas River and flowed into the nearby Magdalena River, while the smaller portion was diverted by hills in front of Lagunillas Canyon, turned 90 degrees to the north until it reached the Sabandija River, and then flowed east with the Sabandija River, until it rejoined the other branch of the mudflow at the junction of the Sabandija and the Magdalena. It is estimated that 1000 people were killed in the mudflows.</p><br>
<h3>Eruption (1985)</h3><br>
<p>Beginning November 1984, geologists observed an increasing level of seismic activity near Nevado del Ruiz. Other signs of a forthcoming eruption included increased fumarole activity, deposition of sulfur on the summit of the volcano, and small phreatic eruptions. In the latter, hot magma came in contact with water, resulting in explosions as the water was almost instantly turned into steam. The most notable of these events was an ash ejection on September 11, 1985. The activity of the volcano decreased in October 1985. The most likely explanation of the events is that new magma rose into the volcanic edifice before September 1985.</p><br>
<p>An Italian volcanological mission analyzed gas samples from fumaroles along the Arenas crater floor and proved them to be a mixture of carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide, indicating a direct release of magma into the surface environment. The mission&#39;s report, delivered on October 22, 1985, judged the risk of lahars to be very high. The report proposed various simple preparedness techniques to local authorities.</p><br>
<p>In November 1985, volcanic activity once again increased as magma neared the surface. The volcano began releasing increasing quantities of gases rich in sulfur dioxide and elementary sulfur. The water content of the fumaroles&#39; gases decreased, and water springs in the vicinity of Nevado del Ruiz became enriched in magnesium, calcium and potassium, which were leached from the magma. The thermodynamic equilibration (stationary heat energy) temperatures, corresponding to the chemical composition of the discharged gases, were from 200 &deg;C to 600 &deg;C. The extensive degassing of the magma caused pressure to build up inside the volcano, which eventually resulted in the explosive eruption.</p><br>
<h4>Eruption and lahars</h4><br>
<p>At 3:06 pm, on November 13, 1985, Nevado del Ruiz began to erupt, ejecting dacitic tephra more than 30 km into the atmosphere. The total mass of the erupted material (including magma) was 35 million tonnes The eruption reached a value of 3 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index. The mass of the ejected sulfur dioxide was about 700,000 tonnes, or about 2% of the mass of the erupted solid material, making the eruption atypically sulfur-rich.</p><br>
<p>The eruption produced pyroclastic flows that melted summit glaciers and snow, generating four thick lahars that raced down river valleys on the volcanos flanks. It also destroyed a small lake that was observed in Arenas crater several months before the eruption. Water in such volcanic lakes tends to be extremely salty and contain dissolved volcanic gases. The lakes hot, acidic water significantly accelerated the melting of the ice; this effect was confirmed by the large amounts of sulfates and chlorides found in the lahar flow.</p><br>
<p>The lahars, formed of water, ice, pumice, and other rocks,</p><br>
<p>One of the lahars virtually erased the small town of Armero in Tolima, which lay in the Lagunilla River valley. Only one quarter of its 28,700 inhabitants survived. The second lahar, which descended through the valley of Chinchiná River, killed about 1,800 people and destroyed about 400 homes in the town of Chinchiná, in the department of Caldas. In total, over 23,000 people were killed and approximately 5,000 were injured. More than 5,000 homes were destroyed. The Armero tragedy, as the event came to be known, was the second-deadliest volcanic disaster in the 20th century, being surpassed only by the 1902 eruption of Mount Pelée, and is the fourth-deadliest volcanic eruption in recorded history. It is also the deadliest known lahar, and Colombia&#39;s worst natural disaster.</p><br>
<p>The loss of life during the 1985 eruption was due partly to the fact that scientists did not know precisely when the eruption would occur, and the authorities would not take costly preventative measures without clear warnings of imminent danger. Because the volcanos last substantial eruption occurred 140 years ago, it was also hard for many to accept the danger the volcano presented; locals even called it the "Sleeping Lion". Hazard maps showing Armero would be completely flooded after an eruption were distributed more than a month before the eruption, but the Colombian Congress criticized the scientific and civil defense agencies for scaremongering. Local authorities failed to alert people to the seriousness of the situation, with Armeros mayor and a priest both reassuring the populace after an ash eruption on the afternoon of November 13 and the consequent ashfall early that evening. Another factor was the storm that hit that evening, causing electrical outages and hindering communications. Civil defense officials from four nearby towns tried to warn Armero the lahar was approaching in the hour or so before it reached Armero, but failed to make radio contact.</p><br>
<p>Scientists later looked back to the hours before the eruption and noticed that several long-period earthquakes, which start out strong and then slowly die out, had occurred in the final hours before the eruption. Volcanologist Bernard Chouet said that, "the volcano was screaming Im about to explode&#39;", but the scientists who were studying the volcano at the time of the eruption were not able to read this signal.</p><br>
<h2>Current threats and preparedness</h2><br>
<p>The volcano continues to pose a serious threat to nearby towns and villages. The most likely hazard is small-volume eruptions, which might destabilize glaciers and trigger lahars. Despite the significant retrenchment of the volcano&#39;s glaciers, the volume of ice atop Nevado del Ruiz and other volcanoes in the Ruiz–Tolima massif remains large. Melting merely 10% of the ice would produce mudflows with a volume of up to 2,000,000 m&sup3;—similar to the mudflow that destroyed Armero in 1985. Such lahars can travel up to 100 km along river valleys in a matter of few hours. Estimates show that up to 500,000 people living in the Combeima, Chinchiná, Coello-Toche, and Guali valleys are in danger, and 100,000 of these are considered to be at high risk. Lahars poses a threat to nearby towns of Honda, Mariquita, Ambalema, Chinchiná, Herveo, Villa Hermosa, Salgar and La Dorada. Although small eruptions are more likely, the two million-year eruptive history of the Ruiz–Tolima massif includes numerous large eruptions, indicating that the threat of a large eruption cannot be ignored.</p><br>
<p>A large eruption would have more widespread effects, including the potential closure of Bogotá&#39;s airport due to ashfall.</p><br>
<p>As the Armero tragedy was exacerbated by the lack of early warnings, and evacuations due to volcanic hazards have been carried out. About 2,300 people living along five nearby rivers were evacuated when Nevado del Ruiz erupted again in 1989. When another Colombian volcano, the Nevado del Huila, erupted in April 2008, thousands of people were evacuated because volcanologists worried that the eruption could be another "Nevado del Ruiz".</p><br>
<p>In 2006, heavy rains on Ruiz sent a mudslide down the Chinchiná River, killing nine youths aged 12–19 on a scouting expedition near the volcano.</p><br>
<h3>Recent activity</h3><br>
<p>During September and October 2010, INGEOMINAS (Colombian Institute of Mining and Geology) noted gradual increases in seismic activity near the Arenas crater. Sulfurous odors and phreatic eruptions reported at Nevado del Ruiz prompted an alert level of Yellow on October 1. Chemical analysis of the volcano demonstrated deformative changes and geochemical alterations. Over the next four months a smattering of long-period earthquakes, considered pseudo-Tornillo events, raised worries that the volcano might erupt. In 2010, tilt increased, and on average 890 volcanic tremors were recorded monthly, roughly eight times as many as had been recorded from 2009–2010. 2010 marked the beginning of increases in sulfur dioxide emissions accompanying small eruptions at the volcano, which both peaked in February 2012 correspondent to a dramatic increase in earthquakes.</p><br>
<p>Scientists flying over the volcano on March 8, 2012 noted fresh ash deposits on the east flank of the volcano near the crater, likely from an phreatic eruption on February 22. Later that day, a small ash plume erupted from the crater; by March 13, scientists detected ash deposits at the head of the Gualí River. After seismicity continued to increase, the alert level was raised to Orange, and in April Nevados National Natural Park authority closed the reserve, fearing lahars and ashfall hazards. The sudden activity peak in March did not culminate in a major eruption, and activity declined enough that the alert level was lowered to Yellow on May 3. On May 29, seismicity rapidly increased, and the alert level was restored to Orange because ash fell into more than 20 nearby communities. Over the next few months ash fell frequently until earthquakes increased again in June. Because of the severity of these tremors, evacuations were ordered by the Emergency Committee of Caldas on news media for 300–1500 people near the volcano. The alert level was raised to Red, indicating an imminent major volcanic event, and an eruption 7.5 km in diameter took place on July 2, 2012, continuing intermittently until the end of August. Ash plumes and sulfur dioxide emissions recurred until January 2013.</p><br>
<p>This volcano is monitored by the Deep Earth Carbon Degassing Project.</p><br>
<p>Poros  is a small Greek island-pair in the southern part of the Saronic Gulf, about 58 km  south from Piraeus and separated from the Peloponnese by a 200 m wide sea channel, with the town of Galatas on the mainland across the strait. Its surface area is about 31 km&sup2; and it has 3,780 inhabitants. The ancient name of Poros was Pogon. Like other ports in the Saronic, it is a popular weekend destination for Athenian travellers.</p><br>
<p>Poros consists of two islands: Sphairia (Σφαιρία, ), the southern part, which is of volcanic origin, where todays city is located, and Kalaureia (Καλαυρία, ), also Kalavria or Calauria (meaning gentle breeze&#39;), the northern and largest part. A bridge connects the two islands over a narrow strait.</p><br>
<p>Poros is an island with rich vegetation. Much of the northern and far eastern/western sides of the island are bushy, whereas large areas of old pine forest are found in the south and center of the island. It has a good road network and adequate tourist infrastructure, which makes it a popular resort for short holidays.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>Though possessing no airport, Poros is easily accessible from Athens via ferry or hydrofoil. One can reach the island by car or bus from the adjacent mainland at Galatas.</p><br>
<p>There is local bus service on the island from Poros harbor to the nearby towns of Neorio and Monastiri.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The land area of the municipality (which includes the islands and part of the adjacent Peloponnese coast) is 49.582 km². The landscape is very hilly and mountainous. The highest peak is the Vigla (358 m) in the west-central part. Following the island&#39;s topography and geology, small creeks and seasonal streams flow through steep valleys of the southern and northeastern part. The western and northern part of the island feature smooth hills and shallow valleys. Sandy beaches are restricted to the southern shore of the island, except for a bay in the northern part called Vayionia.</p><br>
<p>Poros contains the following villages:</p><br>
<p>Poros, (pop. 3,651)37&deg;29&prime;58.23&Prime;N latitude, 23&deg;27&prime;9.94&Prime;E longitude</p><br>
<p>Ágios Nektários (pop. 101).</p><br>
<p>Kyaní Aktí (pop. 213) a part of the mainland at the easternmost point of the Peloponnese peninsula between the island of Poros and the island of Hydra and next to the municipalities of Troizinia and Ermionida.</p><br>
<h3>Geology</h3><br>
<p>The geology of the island comprises Mesozoic to Cenozoic sedimentary rocks (limestone, and Flysch-type sandstone) and ophiolites, as well as Neogene volcanic rocks on Sferia. The island is tectonically dissected and part of a Tertiary tectonic mélange. There are karstic sinkholes in the island&#39;s central limestone massif, and limestone caves with stalactites. Visible marine fossils are mainly found in the limestone, no occurrences of precious stones or ore deposits are known.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In the northeastern part of the island, in a location called “Kavos Vasili”, the archaeologists have discovered the ruins of a settlement of the Early Bronze Period. This settlement is the oldest of the wider area of Trizinia, Peloponnese, and is believed to be interrelated with the wreck found on the nearby Dokos island which dates to the same period.</p><br>
<h3>Antiquity</h3><br>
<p>Poros was divided in two islands during the antiquity: Sphairia (also known by its modern Greek form Sfairia) and Calauria (also known by its ancient Greek form Kalaureia and its modern Greek form Kalavria). Sphairia consisted of the area of the modern island which includes its current capital. Calauria was the larger part of the island to its north. During the period of Mycenaean dominance (1400-1100 BC) Calauria was quite powerful and the most important naval base of region was located on islet Monti or Liontari on its eastern coast. The city-state of Calauria was home to an asylum dedicated to Poseidon, the ruins of which are still accessible on a hilltop close to the town. This asylum may have been linked to the sanctuaries at Geraistos and Tainaros. Ancient historians stated that Calauria was the center of an amphictyony, a religious alliance between its city-state and those of Athens, Poros, Aegina, Epidaurus, Hermione, Troezen, Nauplio, Orchomenus, and Prasaiai. Modern archaeology has discovered no evidence for its actual existence, however, and now believe the "Calaurian League" to have been a later Hellenistic invention. An enormous feast was found dating to the Hellenistic period in the ruins of the Calaurian asylum, along with a plaque celebrating the "revival" of its amphictyony.</p><br>
<p>During the 5th century, the Persian Empire annexed the Greek cities of western Anatolia. Athenian help for a revolt then drew them into a general war with mainland Greece and the Greek states on the Aegean islands. At the beginning of the Peloponnesian War, Troezen and Calauria offered asylum to an anti-Macedonian politician who eventually became the tyrant of the region. After the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, the Ptolemies of Egypt occupied Calauria. Around the same time, the Athenian orator Demosthenes came to the island, where some report his suicide. In 273 BC, the last explosion of the Methana volcano dramatically changed the morphology of Poros and the wider region.</p><br>
<p>The Sanctuary of Poseidon has been excavated by Swedish archaeologists. The 1894 field season is considered to be the first Swedish archaeological campaign in Greece. Swedes have continued excavations from 1997 in collaboration with the Greek National Heritage Board.</p><br>
<h3>Roman and Byzantine times</h3><br>
<p>During the Roman period (86 BC to 395 AD) Poros was part of the Roman Empire along with Trizina, to which it was a tributary.</p><br>
<p>In Byzantine times, Poros and other islands were often raided by the pirates that dominated the Aegean Sea.</p><br>
<h3>Venetian period</h3><br>
<p>In 1484 the Venetians occupied Poros and used it as a strategic port in their sea battles with the Ottomans. Poros was the most powerful city of the wider area, also governing Methana Island, Epidaurus, Damalas (Trizina), Fanari and Valario. During that time, the island had about 15,000 inhabitants, making it one of the largest cities in Greece. Venetian rule ended in 1715.</p><br>
<h3>Ottoman period</h3><br>
<p>The Ottoman Period began in 1715, much later in Poros than in the rest of Greece. Shipping and commerce were the inhabitants’ main activities, but Poros’ fleet wasn’t as famous as Hydra’s or Spetses’ fleet, due to the fact that it did not participate in many sea battles.</p><br>
<h3>The Greek Revolution</h3><br>
<p>Poros had an important role during the Greek Revolution in 1821, due to its strategic position. The Greek revolutionary leaders, often met in Poros to discuss and plan their future actions. The first Greek naval base was established in Poros in 1828 and remained there until 1878. In September 1828, the ambassadors of England, France and Russia met in Poros with Ioannis Kapodistrias in order to determine the borders of the future Greek state, which was established two years later, in 1830.</p><br>
<h3>Russian Naval Base</h3><br>
<p>With the Treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji, Russia secured free shipping for its navy, war and merchant alike, throughout the waters of the Ottoman Empire. As Russian naval activity grew, need arose for a supply station, and land was acquired at the edge of Poros town. Extensive materiel, coal, and food storage facilities were built, as well as a hardtack baking factory. After Greek independence, Governor Capodistrias requisitioned the facilities for use of the Greek war navy, and offered the Russians an alternative location in a nearby cove. The new facilities were far larger, and were used by Russian ships throughout the 19th century. The number of Russian residents of Poros increased and even a Russian school was established. Then as Russian naval activity declined, so did the base and by the early 20th century only a single Russian watchman was left guarding it. It was then granted to the Greek Navy by the Czar but was never put to actual use, and the abandoned buildings were left to decay. The ruins, in elaborately carved stone, were listed as protected architectural monuments in 1989.</p><br>
<h3>Twentieth century</h3><br>
<p>In the beginning of the 20th century, among the activities of the Poros’ inhabitants were agriculture (mainly wheat, grapevines and olives), livestock, fishing and shipping.</p><br>
<h2>Main sights</h2><br>
<p>The town of Poros, with its neoclassical edifices, is built amphitheatrically on the slopes of a hill. Its most famous landmark is a clock tower, built in 1927.</p><br>
<p>The Archaeological Museum of Poros, at Korizis Square, houses findings from the Sanctuary of Poseidon, from ancient Troizen, and from other archaeological sites nearby.</p><br>
<p>In the northern part of the island are the remains of the Sanctuary of Poseidon, the centre of the Kalaureian amphictyony. The exact date it was built is not known, although researchers estimate it to have been around 520 BC. The dimensions of the temple, which is of the Doric order, are 27.4×14.4 m. There are six columns on each short side and twelve on each long side. It was here that Demosthenes, the famous orator, poisoned himself with hemlock in 322 BC fleeing from the Macedonian Governor Antipatros.</p><br>
<p>Poros was the site of the first naval base in modern Greece, established in 1827 during the Greek War of Independence. Most of the activities of Poros naval base were moved to Salamis Naval Base in 1881. The site is still used today by the Hellenic Navy as a training centre for naval personnel.</p><br>
<p>Bourtzi castle. It was built by von Heideck at around 1828, at the place where an old church of St. Constantine had stood. The island was given to the Poros monastery from 1770 on by Antonios Serfos. The stand off between Hydra island and Capodistrias gave the cause for severe fight here on 1831.</p><br>
<p>Poros Shell Museum. Founded in 2006, a permanent exhibition of Shells from the Greek Seas is displayed at the Chatzopouleios Library. More info can be found on the.</p><br>
<p>The Holy Monastery of Zoodochos Pigi, founded in 1720 a.d is located 4 km east of the main city of Poros island is built on the slope of a pine forest. In 1814, a group of monks from Mount Athos, took refuge in this Monastery. A few years later, these monks founded the Zoodochos Pigi Monastery at Longovarda in this island of Paros. Katholiko, Is a bacilica with a dome and a tower like belfry being the main church of the monastery</p><br>
<h2>Historical population</h2><br>
<h2>Notable people</h2><br>
<p>Alexandros Koryzis (1885–1941), Prime Minister of Greece. There is in Poros a museum dedicated to his life.</p><br>
<p>Minos Kyriakou (born 1938), Greek billionaire businessman</p><br>
<p>Henry Miller (1891–1980) American writer wrote about Poros in "The Colossus of Maroussi", considered his best book writes about Poros..."I don&#39;t know which affected me more deeply-the story of the lemon groves just opposite us or the sight of Poros itself when suddenly I realized we were sailing through the streets. If there is one dream which I like above all others it is that of sailing on land. Coming into Poros gives the illusion of the deep dream. Suddenly the land converges on all sides and the boat is squeezed into a narrow strait from which there is no egress. The men and women of Poros are hanging out of the windows just above your head. You pull in right under their frosty nostrils, as though for a shave and a haircut en route. The loungers on the quay are walking with the same speed as the boat. They can walk faster than the boat if they choose to quicken their pace."</p><br>
<p>Other prominent literary people have written about the beauty of Poros such as the Nobel laureate Giorgos Seferis, Kosmas Politis, Kostis Palamas, and Ιoulia Dragoumi.</p><br>
<p>Ivinghoe Beacon is a prominent hill and landmark in the Chiltern Hills, standing 233 m  above sea level. It is situated close to the village of Ivinghoe in Buckinghamshire, the Ashridge Estate, and the villages of Aldbury and Little Gaddesden in Hertfordshire and is managed and owned by the National Trust. Ivinghoe Beacon is part of the Ivinghoe Hills Site of Special Scientific Interest. It lies between the towns of Dunstable in Bedfordshire, and Berkhamsted and Tring in Hertfordshire. It is the starting point of the Icknield Way to the east, and the Ridgeway long-distance path to the west.</p><br>
<p>Ivinghoe Beacon is a popular spot for walkers, sightseers, and model aircraft enthusiasts, who use lift generated by the wind blowing up the hill – a technique known as slope soaring.</p><br>
<p>Ivinghoe Beacon&#39;s appearance of remoteness, yet relative proximity to the film studios at Elstree, meant that it was a favoured location for many dramas, especially those produced by ITC in the 1960s.</p><br>
<p>The beacon has a memorial on top of it.</p><br>
<p>Mount Seymour is a mountain located in Mount Seymour Provincial Park in the District of North Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. It is a part of the North Shore Mountains, rising to the north from the shores of Burrard Inlet and Indian Arm to a summit of 1,449 m above the Indian River and Deep Cove neighbourhoods. Mount Seymour is most commonly identified for its ski area of the same name, and as a popular hiking area. It is named in honour of Frederick Seymour, second governor of the Colony of British Columbia. The name is used to refer to the ridge although the main summit is one of several, and is also known as Third Pump Peak.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The mountain opened for skiing in 1938 under the ownership of the Swedish emigrant, Harald Enqvist, with a cafeteria and ski rental. A few years later, in 1949, the Government of British Columbia bought the ski area. The Government did not have the experience to run a ski area, so, they issued Mr. Enqvist the first Park Use Permit to operate the area. When the permit expired in 1951, the government found a concessionaire, who was put in charge of running the lifts, ski school and cafeteria. The name Enqvist was later spelled Enquist giving name to "The Enquist Lodge" and "Enquist Tube Park" among other facilities. The government retained overall ownership until 1984, when it privatized its operation as part of a cost-cutting measure.</p><br>
<p>The ski area has been run by the Wood family since 1984. They installed the Lodge chairlift in 1986 and the Brockton chairlift in the early 1990s. Starting in the 2010s, the mountain has been more aggressively upgraded. The original Mystery Peak chairlift was removed in 2012 and replaced with a high-speed quad, while the Goldie rope tow was replaced with a magic carpet.</p><br>
<p>On January 19, 2014, Tim Jones died while coming down from the North Shore Rescue team cabin on Mount Seymour. Tim had saved many lives on the mountain over the years. Shortly after his passing a community movement was formed to name the yet unnamed Second Peak of Seymour after him. This movement has gained a lot of traction in the community and has resulted in Bivouac.com changing the name on their mountain database.</p><br>
<h2>Vegetation</h2><br>
<h2>Recreation</h2><br>
<h2>Facilities</h2><br>
<p>The Mount Seymour ski area has four lifts, the Mystery Peak Express quad chairlift, Brockton, and Lodge double chairlifts, and the Goldie Lake covered magic carpet. Another double chairlift, the Ridge Chair was destroyed in a windstorm in 1998, and is currently still standing, though gradually rotting away. Another beginner lift, the Goldie Ropetow was removed in 2011 replaced by the magic carpet. The area offers 330 m of vertical drop and about 1,000 cm of annual snowfall. Skiing and snowboarding are available on 39 marked trails and many unmarked routes. The longest trail is 1.6 km long (Unicorn)and 18 of the trails have night lighting. Five additional terrain parks exist for freestyle activities. Terrain has also been developed for snowtubing and tobogganing.</p><br>
<p>Guided and unguided snowshoeing takes place on a separate 10 km network of maintained trails. Backcountry access for snowshoeing and camping is permitted.</p><br>
<p>Mount Seymour&#39;s Enquist Cabin, located in the Tube Park Parking Lot was destroyed in a fire in the late spring of 2005. The cabin was available for rental and was the home of the Mount Seymour Ski Club. This cabin has been rebuilt, and has been in operation since the beginning of the 2010/2011 season.</p><br>
<h2>Snow depth</h2><br>
<p>Mount Seymour has three weather stations: one at the bottom of the Mystery Peak Chairlift, one near tower 9 of the Mystery Peak Chairlift, and one just below Brockton Point which is the top lift station of the Brockton Chairlift. Except for the unusually warm winter of 2004-2005, there is usually a snow depth of 500 cm or more at the Brockton weather station.</p><br>
<p>BCRFC historical records (from 1960 to 1989) report that Mount Seymour&#39;s average snow base has been 160 cm on January 1, increasing through winter and spring to 345 cm on May 1.</p><br>
<h2>Broadcasting</h2><br>
<p>Several Vancouver-area broadcasters use transmission towers located on Mount Seymour. On 16 December 1953, the first television broadcast in Western Canada was transmitted from this site by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation&#39;s CBUT Channel 2. The CBC broadcasting site on Mount Seymour was both the first television broadcasting site in Western Canada and the first high elevation/mountain top broadcasting site in Canada.</p><br>
<h3>FM stations</h3><br>
<p>CBU-2-FM 88.1 (CBC Radio One)</p><br>
<p>CBUX-FM 90.9 (ICI Musique)</p><br>
<p>CKYE-FM 93.1 (Red FM)</p><br>
<p>CJJR-FM 93.7 (JR-FM)</p><br>
<p>CFBT-FM 94.5 (Virgin Radio 94.5)</p><br>
<p>CKZZ-FM 95.3 (Z 95.3)</p><br>
<p>CHKG-FM 96.1 (Fairchild Radio)</p><br>
<p>CJAX-FM 96.9 (Jack FM)</p><br>
<p>CBUF-FM 97.7 (ICI Radio-Canada Première)</p><br>
<p>CFOX-FM 99.3 (99.3 The Fox)</p><br>
<p>CFMI-FM 101.1 (Rock 101)</p><br>
<p>CKPK-FM 102.7 (The Peak)</p><br>
<p>CHQM-FM 103.5 (103.5 QM/FM)</p><br>
<p>CHHR-FM 104.3 (LG 104.3 FM)</p><br>
<p>CKKS-FM-2 104.9 (Kiss Radio)</p><br>
<p>CBU-FM 105.7 (CBC Radio 2)</p><br>
<p>CKAV-FM-2 106.3 (Aboriginal Voices Radio)</p><br>
<h3>TV stations</h3><br>
<p>CBUT-DT (CBC): UHF 43 (digital)</p><br>
<p>CHAN-DT (Global): UHF 22 (digital)</p><br>
<p>CIVI-DT-2 (rebroadcaster of CIVI-TV, CTV Two): UHF 17 (digital)</p><br>
<p>CBUFT-DT (Radio-Canada): UHF 26 (digital)</p><br>
<p>CIVT-DT (CTV): UHF 32 (digital)</p><br>
<p>CHNM-DT (OMNI): UHF 20 (digital)</p><br>
<p>CKVU-DT ("Citytv"): UHF 33 (digital)</p><br>
<h2>Filming location</h2><br>
<p>Due to its easy road access and ample parking lots, Mount Seymour is often used as a filming location. Films and TV series shot using its forests, snowy slopes and region-spanning vistas include:</p><br>
<p>MacGyver</p><br>
<p>Highlander: The Series</p><br>
<p>Pathfinder</p><br>
<p>Stargate SG-1</p><br>
<p>X-Files</p><br>
<p>Hot Tub Time Machine</p><br>
<p>The Twilight Saga: Eclipse</p><br>
<p>The Bismarck Archipelago is a group of islands off the northeastern coast of New Guinea in the western Pacific Ocean and is part of the Islands Region of Papua New Guinea. Its area is about 50,000 square km.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The first inhabitants of the archipelago arrived around 33,000 years ago from New Guinea, either by boats across the Bismarck Sea or via a temporary land bridge, created by an uplift in the Earth&#39;s crust. Later arrivals included the Lapita people.</p><br>
<p>The first European to visit these islands was Dutch explorer Willem Schouten in 1616. The islands remained unsettled by western Europeans until they were annexed as part of the German protectorate of German New Guinea in 1884. The area was named in honour of the Chancellor Otto von Bismarck.</p><br>
<p>On 13 March 1888, a volcano erupted on Ritter Island causing a megatsunami. Almost the entire volcano fell into the ocean, leaving a small crater lake.</p><br>
<p>Following the outbreak of World War I, the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force seized the islands in 1914 and Australia later received a League of Nations mandate for the islands. They remained under Australian administration&mdash;interrupted only by Japanese occupation during World War II&mdash;until Papua New Guinea became independent in September 1975.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Bismarck Archipelago includes mostly volcanic islands with a total land area of 49,700 km&sup2;. The archipelago encompasses the Bismarck Sea and sits upon the North Bismarck Plate, the Manus Plate and the South Bismarck Plate.</p><br>
<p>Islands are grouped here according to administrative province:</p><br>
<p>Manus Province (see 9 on the map)</p><br>
<p>Admiralty Islands, group of 18 islands including:</p><br>
<p>* Manus Island, main island</p><br>
<p>* Los Negros Island</p><br>
<p>* Lou Island</p><br>
<p>* Ndrova Island</p><br>
<p>* Tong Island</p><br>
<p>* Baluan Island</p><br>
<p>* Pak Island</p><br>
<p>* Purdy Islands</p><br>
<p>* Rambutyo Island</p><br>
<p>* St. Andrews Islands</p><br>
<p>Western Islands, with:</p><br>
<p>* Aua Island</p><br>
<p>* Hermit Islands</p><br>
<p>* Kaniet Islands (Anchorite)</p><br>
<p>** Sae Island</p><br>
<p>* Ninigo Islands</p><br>
<p>* Wuvulu Island</p><br>
<p>New Ireland Province (12)</p><br>
<p>New Ireland or Niu Ailan, main island</p><br>
<p>New Hanover or Lavongai</p><br>
<p>Saint Matthias Group</p><br>
<p>Tabar Group</p><br>
<p>Lihir Group</p><br>
<p>Tanga Group</p><br>
<p>Feni Islands</p><br>
<p>Dyaul Island</p><br>
<p>East New Britain Province (4)</p><br>
<p>New Britain or Niu Briten, main island</p><br>
<p>Duke of York Islands</p><br>
<p>* Kabakon</p><br>
<p>* Ulu</p><br>
<p>West New Britain Province (18)</p><br>
<p>New Britain or Niu Briten, main island</p><br>
<p>Vitu Islands</p><br>
<p>Morobe Province (11)</p><br>
<p>Umboi Island</p><br>
<p>Tolokiwa Island</p><br>
<p>Sakar Island</p><br>
<p>Ritter Island</p><br>
<p>Malai Island</p><br>
<p>Tuam Island</p><br>
<p>Madang Province (8)</p><br>
<p>Long Island</p><br>
<p>Crown Island</p><br>
<p>Karkar Island</p><br>
<p>Bagabag Island</p><br>
<p>Manam</p><br>
<p>East Sepik Province (5)</p><br>
<p>Schouten Islands</p><br>
<p>The passage of water between the islands of New Britain and New Ireland is called St. Georges Channel after St. Georges Channel in the British Isles between Wales and Ireland.</p><br>
<p>Whakaari / White Island is an active andesite stratovolcano, situated 48 km from the east coast of the North Island of New Zealand, in the Bay of Plenty. It is New Zealands most active cone volcano, and has been built up by continuous volcanic activity over the past 150,000 years. The nearest mainland towns are Whakatane and Tauranga. White Island has been in a nearly continuous stage of smoking at least since it was discovered&#39; by James Cook in 1769.</p><br>
<p>The island is roughly circular, about 2 km in diameter, and rises to a height of 321 m above sea level. It covers an area of approximately. The exposed island is only the peak of a much larger submarine mountain, which rises up to 1,600 m above the nearby seafloor. Sulphur mining was attempted but was abandoned in 1914 after a lahar killed all of the site&#39;s workers. The main activities on the island now are guided tours and scientific research.</p><br>
<h2>Volcanology</h2><br>
<p>Whakaaris eruptions have produced both lava flows and explosive eruptions of ash. It is New Zealands most well-known active marine volcano, attracting scientists and volcanologists worldwide as well as many tourists. It is part of the Taupo Volcanic Zone.</p><br>
<p>Volcanologists from the continually monitor the volcanos activity via surveillance cameras. Survey pegs, magnetometers and seismograph equipment for early earthquake warnings via radio have also been installed on the crater walls. The island is usually on an alert level rating of 1 or 2 on a scale of 0 to 5. This volcano is monitored by the Deep Earth Carbon Degassing Project. At most times the volcanic activity is limited to steaming fumaroles and boiling mud. In March 2000, three small vents appeared in the main crater and began belching ash which covered the island in fine grey powder. An eruption on 27 July 2000 blanketed the island with mud and scoria and a new crater appeared. Major eruptions in 1981–83 altered much of the islands landscape and decimated the extensive pōhutukawa forest. The large crater created at that time now contains a lake, whose level varies substantially. Between July and August 2012 White Island showed signs of increased activity with lake and gas levels rising from inside the crater. On 5 August 2012 a minor eruption occurred, sending ash into the air. More eruptions have followed since.</p><br>
<p>Continued volcanic activity and tremors on 25 January 2013 suggested another eruption was imminent. A small eruption occurred on 20 August 2013 at 10.23am, lasting for 10 minutes and producing mostly steam. According to The New Zealand Herald newspaper, "Civil Defence will monitor White Island (Whakari) following a small eruption which could be part of a sequence leading to a bigger event."</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The full Māori name for the island is Te Puia o Whakaari, meaning The Dramatic Volcano. It was named White Island by Captain Cook on 1 October 1769, possibly due to the white steam emanating from it; alternatively he may have been referencing the guano deposits that once covered the island. Although Cook went close to the island he failed to notice that it was a volcano. Its official name is Whakaari/White Island although it is best known as White Island.</p><br>
<p>Attempts were made in the mid-1880s, 1898–1901 and 1913–1914 to mine sulphur from White Island, with the island at first being owned by John Wilson. The mining came to a halt in September 1914, when part of the western crater rim collapsed, creating a lahar which killed all 10 workers. They disappeared without trace, and only a camp cat survived. It was found some days afterwards by the resupply ship, and dubbed "Peter the Great".</p><br>
<p>Some years later in 1923, mining was again attempted, but learning from the 1914 disaster, the miners built their huts on a flat part of the island near a gannet colony. Each day they would lower their boat into the sea from a gantry, and row around to the mining factory wharf in Crater Bay. If the sea was rough they had to clamber around the rocks on a very narrow track on the craters edge. Before the days of antibiotics, sulphur was used in medicines as an antibacterial agent, in the making of match heads, and for sterilising wine corks. The miners diggings were handled in small rail trucks to the crushing and bagging process in the factory built on the island. Unfortunately, there was not enough sulphur at Whakaari and so the ground-up rock was used as a component of agricultural fertiliser. Eventually the mining ended in the 1930s because of the poor mineral content in the fertiliser. The remains of the buildings can still be seen, much corroded by the sulphuric gases.</p><br>
<h2>Important bird area</h2><br>
<p>The island has been identified as an Important Bird Area by BirdLife International because of its breeding colony of about 3000 pairs of Australasian gannets.</p><br>
<h2>Access</h2><br>
<p>White Island is privately owned. It was declared a private scenic reserve, in 1953, and is subject to the provision of the Reserves Act 1977. Visitors cannot land without permission. However, it is easily accessible by authorised tourist operators.</p><br>
<p>The waters surrounding White Island are well known for their fishing. Yellowtail kingfish abound all year round, and there is deep water fishing for hapuka and bluenose (a type of warehou) in the winter and blue, black and striped marlin and yellowfin tuna in the summer. A small charter fleet offering day trips and overnight or longer trips operates from the nearby port at Whakatane.</p><br>
<p>Dwight Presbyterian Mission was one of the first American missions to the Native Americans. It was established near Russellville, Arkansas in 1821 to serve the Arkansas Cherokees. Because they were required to move to Indian Territory in 1828, the mission was reestablished in Indian Territory in 1829 near present-day Marble City, Oklahoma. The mission is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>A mission was requested by Tahlonteskee, the Principal Chief of the Western Cherokees after he had visited Brainerd Mission in 1818. The mission was founded in 1821 on Illinois Bayou near Russellville, Arkansas by Cephas Washburn. It was named for Rev. Timothy Dwight, president of Yale College and a corporate member of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions.</p><br>
<p>By 1824, Dwight Mission was a self-contained small town on the frontier. According to the Encyclopedia of Arkansas History and Culture, there were at least 24 buildings, including residences for missionaries, students, staff, and visitors; support buildings that included a combination library, post office and pharmacy; a dining hall with kitchen; a storehouse; a blacksmith shop; lathe and carpenter shop; a stable and a barn.</p><br>
<p>A new treaty between the Cherokees and the United States in 1828 required the Arkansas Cherokees to move to Indian Territory. Therefore, the mission was reestablished in May 1829, on Sallisaw Creek, near the present city of Marble City, Oklahoma. The school opened May 1, 1830. Initially, the facility had a double log house teacher age (a building combining school and living quarters) and several log houses to house the staff.Eventually, there would be twenty-one houses, a dining hall, a barn and a number of outbuildings. The mission had more than a dozen staff members and eighty students at the peak of its activity. Its primary mission was to provide an education to Cherokee children and expose them to the Christian religion.</p><br>
<p>Samuel Worcester served at the mission in 1835, after having worked with the Cherokee as a missionary in Georgia before removal. He created the type for the Cherokee syllabary for their first newspaper, the Cherokee Phoenix. In 1837, the first printing press in the then Indian Territory (now Oklahoma) was moved from Union Mission to Dwight Mission. In 1839, the majority of the Cherokee nation was removed to the area from the Southeast on the Trail of Tears.</p><br>
<p>During the American Civil War, many of the mission&#39;s buildings were burned down in warfare between pro-Confederate and pro-Union forces. The last religious service was in November 1862. Then it was abandoned. Afterwards, the property was taken over by private owners. By 1884, only two of the original buildings remained.</p><br>
<p>The Cherokee National Council decided to reopen the school in 1886. The Presbyterian Women&#39;s Board of Home Missions supplied funds to do this, and a large building was constructed to serve as a boarding school for Cherokee girls. After 1895, it became a day school, then resumed the boarding school concept in 1900, this time for boys and girls. By 1944, the facility was called Dwight Indian Training School. It was then operated by Board of National Missions of the Presbyterian Church USA, and served seventy-one students, mostly Cherokee and Choctaw.</p><br>
<p>The school was closed in 1948.</p><br>
<p>In the fall of 1950, a number of Presbyterian laymen felt that the Synod of Oklahoma should acquire the property and preserve it because of its long association with the Presbyterian Church. They formed Dwight Mission, Inc. and purchased the property on May 6, 1951 for $35,000. Dwight Mission, Inc. and the Synod of Oklahoma managed the daily programs for the next 30 years.</p><br>
<p>Dwight Mission today operates as a Presbyterian camp, retreat, and conference center between Marble City and Sallisaw Oklahoma. It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Historical markers identify and explain the original location in Arkansas.</p><br>
<p>The Hermitage is a historical plantation and museum located in Davidson County, Tennessee, United States, 10 mi east of downtown Nashville. The plantation was owned by Andrew Jackson, the seventh President of the United States, from 1804 until his death at the Hermitage in 1845. Jackson only lived at the property occasionally until he retired from public life in 1837. Enslaved men and women, numbering nine at the plantations purchase in 1804 and 110 at Jacksons death, worked at the Hermitage, principally involved in growing cotton, its major cash crop. It is a National Historic Landmark.</p><br>
<h2>Mansion and grounds</h2><br>
<h3>Architecture</h3><br>
<p>The Hermitage is built in a secluded meadow that was chosen as a house site by Rachel Jackson, wife of Andrew Jackson. From 1804 to 1821, Jackson and his wife lived in a log cabin, with slaves occupying two additional log structures; together the complex formed the First Hermitage and the structures were known as the West, East and Southeast cabins.</p><br>
<p>Jackson commissioned construction of a more refined house; the original mansion was a two-story Federal-style building, built with bricks manufactured on-site with skilled slave labor, and completed between 1819 and 1821. It had four rooms on the ground floor and four rooms on the second level, each having a fireplace and chimney. The large central hallways opened in warm weather from front to back to form a breezeway. A simple portico was added later. In 1831, while Jackson was away in the White House, he had the mansion remodeled under the direction of architect David Morrison, with flanking one-story wings, a one-story entrance portico with 10 columns, and a small rear portico giving the house a Classical appearance.</p><br>
<p>In 1834, a chimney fire seriously damaged the house, with the exception of the dining room wing. This prompted Jackson to have the current 13-room Greek Revival structure built on the same foundation as the former house, which was completed two years later. The architects for the house were Joseph Reiff and William C. Hume, who were building Tulip Grove across the road.</p><br>
<p>The mansion is built in a rectangular layout, approximately 104 ft from east to west and 54 ft from north to south. The south front is the location of the main entrance, and includes a central block with a five bay two-story structure, with a portico supported by six modified Corinthian style, wooden columns with a simple entablature resting on the capitals. Within the portico is a second-story balcony with simple square balusters. One-story wings, with single fenestrations, flank the mansion and extend beyond the mansion to the front of the portico, so that it is enclosed on three sides. While the southern façade gives the appearance of a flat roof, the three other elevations reveal that the tin-covered roof is pitched. The front façade was painted a light tan and sand coating was added onto the columns and trim to simulate the appearance of stone. A near replica of the front portico is found on the north end of the house, though featuring Doric-style columns and capped with a pediment.</p><br>
<h3>Interior</h3><br>
<p>The layout of the main block of the house is four large rooms separated by a center hall. The entry hall with plank flooring painted dark is decorated with block-printed wallpaper by Joseph Dufour et Cie of Paris, depicting scenes from Telemachus&#39; visit to the island of Calypso. At the far end of the hall is the elliptical cantilevered staircase, with mahogany handrail, that leads to the second level. To the left of the hall are the front and back parlors, featuring crystal chandeliers and Italian marble mantels. Leading from the front parlor is the dining room in the east wing.</p><br>
<p>Decorated with a high-gloss paint to reflect as much light as possible, the fireplace features a rustic mantelpiece called the "Eighth of January". It was carved by a veteran of the Battle of New Orleans; he worked on the mantelpiece on each annual anniversary of the battle until he finished on January 8, 1839. Jackson installed the piece on January 8, 1840. Adjacent to the dining room is a pantry and storage room that leads to an open passageway to the kitchen. This was built separate from the house to prevent risk of fire to the main house, as well as to exclude the noise, heat and odors of cooking. To the right of the entrance hall, and accessed via a side hall, are two bedrooms; these were occupied by President Jackson and his son, Andrew Jackson, Jr. In the west wing is a spacious library and office used by Jackson and others to manage the plantation.</p><br>
<p>On the second level are four bedrooms used by family members and guests; the latter included Sam Houston, the Marquis de Lafayette, and presidents James K. Polk and Martin Van Buren.</p><br>
<h3>Grounds</h3><br>
<p>The site today covers 1,120 acre, which includes the original 1,050 acre tract of Jacksons plantation. It is overseen and managed by The Andrew Jackson Foundation, formerly called the Ladies Hermitage Association. The mansion is approached by a cedar-lined, 10 ft wide, guitar-shaped carriage drive, designed by Ralph E. W. Earl. The design made it easier to maneuver carriages in the narrow space. To the east of the house was a 1 acre formal garden designed by Philadelphia-based gardener William Frost in 1819. Laid out in the English four-square kitchen garden style, it consists of four quadrants and a circular center bed contained by unusually long, beveled bricks and pebbled pathways. Originally the garden was used to produce food for the mansion and secondarily as an ornamental pleasure garden. The garden is surrounded by a white picket fence. On the north perimeter stands a brick privy that served as a status symbol and garden feature.</p><br>
<p>After Rachel Jackson died in 1828, Jackson had her buried in the garden she loved. When he had the house remodeled in 1831, Jackson also had a classicizing "temple & monument" constructed for Rachel&#39;s grave. Craftsmen completed the domed limestone tomb with a copper roof in 1832.</p><br>
<p>Behind the mansion the property includes a smokehouse and three log slave cabins that date to the early 19th century. The large brick smokehouse at the rear of the kitchen was built in 1831 and cured 20,000 lb of pork a year. Nearby is a slave cabin known as Uncle Alfreds Cabin. Alfred Jackson was born into slavery at the Hermitage around 1812. He worked there as a freedman after Emancipation and stayed on as caretaker following the purchase of the estate in 1889 by the Ladies Hermitage Association. Jackson died in 1901 and was buried near the tomb of the president and Mrs. Jackson.</p><br>
<p>Two other slave cabins were built from materials of the First Hermitage. After Jackson built the main house, the two-story log structure which he had lived in for 15 years was disassembled. It was rebuilt as two one-story buildings to be used as slave quarters.</p><br>
<p>From 1988 to 2005, teams conducted extensive archaeological work at the plantation. Their work revealed the location of an ice house behind the smokehouse, and hundreds of thousands of artifacts related to the lives of the nearly 190 slaves in total who had worked here during Jackson&#39;s lifetime. A brick triplex of slave cabins was discovered near the mansion yard and was likely used by domestic slaves and artisans. A slave quartering area was established 900 ft north of the First Hermitage, which archaeologists refer to as the Field Quarter. Remains of three dug-in-ground pits suggest there were at least two log houses and four brick duplexes. The cotton gin and press were located in one of the cotton fields just beyond the First Hermitage.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The plantation that Jackson named Hermitage was located 2 mi from the Cumberland and Stones rivers; after Native Americans had been pushed out of the region. The land was originally settled in 1780 by Robert Hays. (He was grand uncle to Texas Ranger John Coffee Hays and Confederate General Harry Thompson Hays.) Hays sold the 420 acre farm to Jackson in 1804.</p><br>
<h3>Cotton plantation</h3><br>
<p>Jackson and his wife moved into the existing two-story log blockhouse, built to resist Indian attacks. Jackson added a lean-to on the back of the cabin and to the rear erected a group of log outbuildings, including slave cabins, store rooms, and a smokehouse. This complex is known historically as the First Hermitage. Jackson started operations of his cotton farm with nine African slaves, but he continued to buy more laborers and owned 44 slaves by 1820. This scale of operation made him rank as a major planter and slaveholder in middle Tennessee, where most farmers owned fewer than 10 slaves, and 20 slaves marked a major planter. Some slave cabins for domestic servants and artisans were located near the main house; the majority, occupied by laborers, were located closer to the fields and were known as the Field Quarter.</p><br>
<p>In 1818–19, prior to his appointment as provisional Governor of the Florida Territory, Jackson built a brick house to replace the log structure he had lived in since purchasing the plantation. He also added six brick structures, containing a total of thirteen 20 by dwelling units to house enslaved workers. These included a three-unit building known as the Triplex, built behind the mansion. A two-unit duplex was built at the First Hermitage, known as the South Cabin. Four brick duplexes were built at the Field Quarter, and were known as Cabins 1, 2, 3 and 4. At least one Field Cabin was still standing as late as the 1920s.</p><br>
<p>Elected President in 1828, Jackson enlarged the Hermitage during his first term. After an 1834 fire destroyed much of the interior of the house, Jackson rebuilt and refurnished it. At the end of his second term in 1837, Jackson retired to the Hermitage, where he died in 1845. Andrew Jackson was buried in the garden next to his wife.</p><br>
<p>He expanded the plantation to an operation of 1,000 acre, with 200 acre used for cotton, the commodity crop, and the remainder for food production and breeding and training racehorses. By 1840, over 100 enslaved men, women, and children lived on the estate. At the peak of his operations, Jackson held 161 slaves in total: 110 at the Hermitage and 51 at Halcyon plantation in Coahoma County, Mississippi.</p><br>
<p>The estate was inherited by Jacksons adopted son, Andrew Jackson, Jr. The senior Jacksons will gave him all slaves but two boys (given to his grandchildren) and four women (given to Andrew Jr.&#39;s wife Sarah). Due to debt and bad investments, he began selling off portions of the estate. In 1856, he sold the remaining 500 acre, the mansion and outbuildings to the State of Tennessee, with a provision that the Jackson family could remain in residence as caretakers of the estate. The state intended to turn over the property to the Federal Government for use as a southern branch of the United States Military Academy but the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861 disrupted this plan.</p><br>
<h3>Civil War and afterwards</h3><br>
<p>On May 5, 1863, units of the Union Army, from Indiana, approached the Hermitage. Pvt. Joseph C. Taylor wrote an account in his diary:</p><br>
<h3>Museum</h3><br>
<p>Andrew Jacksons grandson, Andrew Jackson III, and his family were the last to occupy the Hermitage. The family moved out in 1893 when it ceased being a family residence. The Hermitage was opened to the public by the Ladies Hermitage Association, who had been deeded the property by the State of Tennessee, as a museum of both Jackson&#39;s life and the antebellum South in general. The Association restored the mansion to its appearance in 1837. Over time it bought back all the land that had been sold, taking ownership of the last parcel in 2003 to restore the plantation boundaries.</p><br>
<p>The Hermitage escaped a near-disaster during the 1998 Nashville tornado outbreak. An F-3 tornado crossed the property at approximately 4:00 p.m. CDT on April 16, 1998, missing the house and grave site, but toppling 1,000 trees on the estate, many that had reportedly been planted by Jackson himself nearly 200 years earlier. Although the trees had once hidden the house from view of passers-by on USA Route 70, the loss of so many from the tornado have left the mansion in plain sight.</p><br>
<p>Using wood from the fallen trees, the Gibson Guitar Corporation was authorized to produce 200 limited edition "Old Hickory" guitars. The first guitar produced was presented to the Smithsonian, though it is not on display.</p><br>
<p>The mansion is the most accurately preserved early presidential home in the country. Each year, the home receives more than a quarter million visitors, making it the fourth most-visited presidential residence in the country (after the White House, Mount Vernon, and Monticello). The property was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1960.</p><br>
<p>Based on the archeological excavations and other research, in 2005 the Hermitage mounted an exhibition on slave life at the plantation. It is installed in the Visitor Center and provides much more focus on the lives of enslaved African-American families at the plantation, ranging from the domestic staff to field laborers.</p><br>
<h2>Legacy</h2><br>
<p>The area of Davidson County surrounding the Hermitage is known as Hermitage, Tennessee. A hotel named the Hermitage Hotel, located in downtown Nashville, opened in 1910 and is still operating. Many celebrities and USA presidents have spent time there.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The plantation is prominently featured in one of the opening scenes of F. Scott Fitzgerald&#39;s unfinished novel, The Last Tycoon (1941), when the narrator, Celia, visits it with two other characters.</p><br>
<p>The Hermitage was one of the filming locations and settings for the 1955 Disney film Davy Crockett, King of the Wild Frontier.</p><br>
<p>Sather Gate is a prominent landmark separating Sproul Plaza from the bridge over Strawberry Creek, leading to the center of the University of California, Berkeley campus. The gate was donated by Jane K. Sather, a benefactor of the university, in memory of her late husband Peder Sather, a trustee of the College of California, which later became the University of California. It is California Historical Landmark No. 946 and No. 82004649 in the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Designed by John Galen Howard and built by Giovanni "John" Meneghetti in the Classical Revival Beaux-Arts style, Sather Gate was completed in 1910. Atop the gate are eight panels of bas-relief figures: four nude men representing the disciplines of law, letters, medicine, and mining, and four nude women representing the disciplines of agriculture, architecture, art, and electricity. They were sculpted by Professor Earl Cummins.</p><br>
<p>Originally, the gate served as the terminus of Telegraph Avenue, and marked the Universitys south entrance. (The circle in front of the gate served as a turning point for the trolleys coming from Oakland.) The University later expanded further south of Strawberry Creek, and the gate is now well separated from Berkeleys city streets by Sproul Plaza.</p><br>
<p>Sather Gate has undergone restoration beginning in October 2008 that focused on its bronze and steel metal work, which had deteriorated over time. During its restoration it remained open to pedestrian and vehicular traffic. Restoration of Sather Gate was completed in April 2009. Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates, Inc., coordinated the restoration of Sather Gate; a 2010 Design Award recipient from the California Preservation Foundation.</p><br>
<p>Brook Farm, also called the Brook Farm Institute of Agriculture and Education or the Brook Farm Association for Industry and Education, was a utopian experiment in communal living in the United States in the 1840s. It was founded by former Unitarian minister George Ripley and his wife Sophia Ripley at the Ellis Farm in West Roxbury, Massachusetts  in 1841 and was inspired in part by the ideals of Transcendentalism, a religious and cultural philosophy based in New England. Founded as a joint stock company, it promised its participants a portion of the profits from the farm in exchange for performing an equal share of the work. Brook Farmers believed that by sharing the workload, ample time would be available for leisure activities and intellectual pursuits.</p><br>
<p>Life on Brook Farm was based on balancing labor and leisure while working together for the benefit of the greater community. Each member could choose to do whatever work they found most appealing and all were paid equally, including women. Revenue for the community came from farming and from selling handmade products like clothing as well as through fees paid by the many visitors to Brook Farm. The main source of income was the school, which was overseen by Mrs. Ripley. A pre-school, primary school, and a college preparatory school attracted children internationally and each child was charged for his or her education. Adult education was also offered.</p><br>
<p>The community was never financially stable and had difficulty profiting from its agricultural pursuits. By 1844, the Brook Farmers adopted a societal model based on the socialist concepts of Charles Fourier and began publishing The Harbinger as an unofficial journal promoting Fourierism. Following his vision, the community members began building an ambitious structure called the Phalanstery. When the uninsured building was destroyed in a fire, the community was financially devastated and never recovered. It was fully closed by 1847. Despite the experimental communes failure, many Brook Farmers looked back on their experience positively. Critics of the commune included Charles Lane, founder of another utopian community called Fruitlands. Nathaniel Hawthorne was a founding member of Brook Farm, though he was not a strong adherent of the communitys ideals. He later fictionalized his experience in his novel The Blithedale Romance (1852).</p><br>
<p>After the community&#39;s failure, the property was operated for most of the next 130 years by a Lutheran organization as first an orphanage, and then a treatment center and school. The buildings of the Transcendentalists were destroyed by fire over the years. In 1988 the State of Massachusetts acquired 148 acre of the farm, which is now operated by the Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation as a historic site. Brook Farm was one of the first sites in Massachusetts to be listed on the National Register of Historic Places and be designated a National Historic Site. In 1977, the Boston Landmarks Commission designated a Landmark, the city’s highest recognition for historic sites.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Planning and background</h3><br>
<p>In October 1840, George Ripley announced to the Transcendental Club that he was planning to form a Utopian community. Brook Farm, as it would be called, was based on the ideals of Transcendentalism; its founders believed that by pooling labor they could sustain the community and still have time for literary and scientific pursuits. At Brook Farm, as in other communities, physical labor was perceived as a condition of mental well-being and health. Brook Farm was one of at least 80 communal experiments active in the United States throughout the 1840s, though it was the first to be secular. Ripley believed his experiment would be a model for the rest of society. He predicted: "If wisely executed, it will be a light over this country and this age. If not the sunrise, it will be the morning star." As more interested people began to take part in planning, Ripley relocated meetings from his home to the West Street bookshop operated by Elizabeth Palmer Peabody.</p><br>
<h3>Beginnings</h3><br>
<p>Ripley and his wife Sophia formed a joint stock company in 1841 along with 10 other initial investors. He sold shares of the company $500 apiece with a promise of five percent of the profits to each investor. They began raising money, including holding a meeting at Peabodys bookshop to raise $10,000 for the farms initial purchase. The site was eventually purchased on October 11, 1841, for $10,500. though participants had begun moving in as early as April. The 170 acre farm about eight miles (13 km) from Boston was described in a pamphlet as a "place of great natural beauty, combining a convenient nearness to the city with a degree of retirement and freedom from unfavorable influences unusual even in the country". The purchase also covered a neighboring Keith farm, approximately 22 acre, "consisting altogether of a farm with dwelling house, barn, and outbuildings thereon situated".</p><br>
<p>The first major public notice of the community was published in August 1841. "The Community at West Roxbury, Mass." was likely written by Elizabeth Palmer Peabody. Though they began with 10 investors, eventually some 32 people would become Brook Farmers. Ripley received many applications to join the community, especially from people who had little money or those in poor health, but full-fledged membership was granted only to individuals who could afford the $500 share of the joint stock company.</p><br>
<p>One of the initial founders of Brook Farm was author Nathaniel Hawthorne. Hawthorne did not particularly agree with the ideals of the experiment, hoping only that it would help him raise enough money to begin his life with his wife-to-be Sophia Peabody. He wrote of his displeasure with the community: "even my Custom House experience was not such a thraldom and weariness; my mind and heart were freer.....Thank God, my soul is not utterly buried under a dung-heap."</p><br>
<h3>Fourier inspiration</h3><br>
<p>In the late 1830s Ripley became increasingly engaged in "Associationism", an early socialist movement based on the work of Charles Fourier. Horace Greeley, a New York newspaper editor, and others began to pressure the Brook Farm experiment to follow more closely the pattern of Charles Fourier at a time when the community was struggling to be self-sufficient. Albert Brisbane, whose book The Social Destiny of Man (1840) had been an inspiration to Ripley, paid Greeley $500 for permission to publish a front-page column in the New York Tribune which ran in several parts from March 1842 to September 1843. Brisbane argued in the series, titled "Association: or, Principles of a True Organization of Society", how Fouriers theories could be applied in the United States. Brisbane published similar articles in 1842 in The Dial, the journal of the Transcendentalists. Fouriers societal vision included elaborate plans for specific structures and highly organized roles of its members. He called this system for an ideal community a "Phalanx".</p><br>
<p>To meet this vision, now under the name "Brook Farm Association for Industry and Education", Brook Farmers committed themselves to constructing an ambitious communal building known as the Phalanstery. Construction began in the summer of 1844 and the structure would provide accommodations for 14 families and single people as well. It was planned to be 175 ft by 40 ft and include, as Ripley described, "a large and commodious kitchen, a dining-hall capable of seating from three to four hundred persons, two public saloons, and a spacious hall or lecture room".</p><br>
<p>Ripley and two associates created a new constitution for Brook Farm in 1844, beginning the experiments attempts to follow closely Fouriers Phalanx system. Many Brook Farmers supported the transition; at a dinner in honor of Fouriers birthday, one member of the group proposed a toast to "Fourier, the second coming of Christ". Others, however, did not share in the enthusiasm and some left the commune altogether. Both supporters and detractors referred to the early part of Brook Farms history as the "Transcendental days". Ripley himself became a celebrity proponent of Fourierism and organized conventions throughout New England to discuss the community.</p><br>
<p>In the last few months of 1844, Brook Farmers were offered the possibility of taking over two Associationism-inspired publications, Brisbanes The Phalanx and John Allens The Social Reformer. Four printers were part of Brook Farm at the time and members of the community believed it would elevate their status as leaders of the movement as well as provide additional income. Ultimately, the Brook Farmers published a new journal combining the two, The Harbinger. The journal&#39;s first issue was published June 14, 1845, and was continuously printed, originally weekly, until October 1847, when it was relocated to New York City, still under the oversight of George Ripley and fellow Brook Farmer Charles Anderson Dana. Naming the publication, however, turned out to be a difficult task. Parke Godwin offered advice when it was suggested to keep the name The Phalanx:</p><br>
<h3>Decline and dissolution</h3><br>
<p>Brook Farm began to decline rapidly after its restructuring. In October 1844, Orestes Brownson visited the site and sensed that "the atmosphere of the place is horrible". To save money, "retrenchments", or sacrifices, were called for, particularly at the dinner table. Meat, coffee, tea, and butter were no longer offered, though it was agreed that a separate table with meat be allowed in December 1844. Many Brook Farmers applied for exceptions to these rules and soon it was agreed that "members of the Association who sit at the meat table shall be charged extra for their board". Life on Brook Farm was further worsened by an outbreak of smallpox in November 1845; though no one died, 26 Brook Farmers were infected.</p><br>
<p>Construction on the Phalanstery was progressing well The fire was likely caused by a defective chimney. One participant noted, "Ere long the flames were chasing one another in a mad riot over the structure; running across long corridors and up and down the supporting columns of wood, until the huge edifice was a mass of firework". The financial blow from the loss of the uninsured building was $7,000 and it marked the beginning of the end of Brook Farm.</p><br>
<p>George Ripley, who had begun the experiment, made an unofficial break with Brook Farm in May 1846. Many others began to leave as well, though the dissolution of the farm was slow. As one Brook Farmer said, the slow decline of the community was like apple petals drifting slowly to the ground, making it seem "dreamy and unreal". By the end, Brook Farm had a total debt of $17,445. Ripley told a friend, "I can now understand how a man would feel if he could attend his own funeral". He took a job with the New York Tribune and it took him 13 years to pay off the Brook Farm debt, which he did in 1862.</p><br>
<h2>After Brook Farm</h2><br>
<p>A man named John Plummer purchased the land that was Brook Farm in 1849 before selling it six years later to James Freeman Clarke, who intended to establish another community there. Instead, Clarke offered it to President Abraham Lincoln during the American Civil War and the Second Massachusetts Regiment used it for training as Camp Andrew.</p><br>
<p>Clarke sold the property in 1868 to two brothers, who used it as a summer boarding house. In 1870 Gottlieb F. Burckhardt purchased the property, after which he formed the Association of the Evangelical Lutheran Church for Works of Mercy to operate an orphanage in The Hive, as the main house on the property was known. The orphanage opened in 1872 and operated until 1943. In 1948 the Lutherans converted it into a treatment center and school, which closed in 1977. Parts of the farm were separated in 1873 for use as a cemetery, a use that continues today as a non-denominational cemetery known as the Gardens of Gethsemene (as part of St. Joseph&#39;s Cemetery and the Baker Street Jewish Cemeteries). During the period of Lutheran ownership the only now extant building, a c. 1890 print shop, was built on the land; the buildings associated with the Transcendentalists, most recently the Margaret Fuller Cottage, had burned down by the 1980s.</p><br>
<p>In 1988 the Metropolitan District Commission (since merged with the Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation, or DCR) purchased 148 acre of the original land. The farm was declared a USA National Historic Landmark in 1965, a Boston Landmark in 1977, and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The DCR now operate the state-owned portion as a historic site; the West Roxbury Historical Society periodically offers tours.</p><br>
<h2>Landscape and facilities</h2><br>
<p>Brook Farm was named for the brook that ran near the roadside and that eventually went to the Charles River. It was surrounded by low hills and its meadows and sunny slopes were diversified by orchard, quiet groves and denser pine woods. The land, however, turned out to be difficult to farm.</p><br>
<p>The land on the Keith lot that was purchased along with the Ellis farm included a functional farmhouse, which Brook Farmers immediately began calling "The Hive". The Hive became the center for social activities and was where the people of the community went to eat three meals a day. The Hives dining room held fifty people and its library was stocked with George Ripleys personal book collection which was made available for all community members.</p><br>
<p>As the community grew, it became necessary to add more buildings for lodgings and various activities. The first building constructed was "The Nest", where school lessons took place and where guests of the farm would stay. Mr. and Mrs. Ripley&#39;s house, later to be called the Eyrie, was built during the second year. The next building to be built was the Margaret Fuller Cottage; though named after Fuller, she never spent a night there. A participant at Brook Farm named Ichabod Morton built the Pilgrim House, named in honor of his home town of Plymouth, Massachusetts. The -story building was the third structure built that year and cost nearly $5,000 to build. Morton stayed there only two weeks before moving out, after which the building was used for general lodging and also held the laundry facilities. The many constructions, including greenhouses and small craft shops, quickly reduced their treasury.</p><br>
<h2>Community life</h2><br>
<h3>Work and finances</h3><br>
<p>Participants at Brook Farm were also shareholders and were promised five percent of the annual profits or free tuition for one student. In exchange for 300 days of work per year, they were granted free room and board. Members performed whatever work most appealed to them and all, including women, were paid equal wages. The philosophy of labor, according to Ripley, was "to insure a more natural union between intellectual and manual labor than now exists; to combine the thinker and the worker, as far as possible, in the same individual."</p><br>
<p>The organization of work in Brook Farm changed over time because of both financial troubles and changes in ideologies. Members of Brook Farm initially participated in an “attractive industry” system where each individual could pick his or her work assignments based on their won preferences. This method did not have any specific authority making sure that essential tasks were getting done. After initial leniency, some sensed that not all members were doing their fair share of the labor, so in 1841 the community adopted required standards for work: ten hours of work were required per day during the summer, and eight hours during winter. Each group had a chief whose duty it was to keep a record of the work done. While this system did create a new work hierarchy, the members still had the flexibility to move between groups easily. These new measures caused Brook Farm to achieve a profit in 1844 which was a feat that had not been accomplished in its first few years of the community&#39;s existence.</p><br>
<p>Typical work duties at Brook Farm included chopping wood, bringing in firewood, milking cows, turning a grindstone, and other farming chores. There were some occasional conflicts between different workers, partly because those who were educators believed themselves more aristocratic; overall, however, as historian Charles Crowe wrote, "indeed all aspects of communal life operated with surprisingly little friction" in general.</p><br>
<p>Visitors to Brook Farm came frequently, totaling an estimated 1,150 each year, though each was charged for their visit. Between November 1844 and October 1845, surviving records show that $425 was collected from visitor fees. The list of visitors included theologian Henry James, Sr., sculptor William Wetmore Story, artist John Sartain, and British social reformer Robert Owen.</p><br>
<p>Despite multiple sources of income, the community was in constant debt almost immediately after it began. The community, including Ripley, had difficulty with the farming aspects of the community, in particular because of poor soil and not enough labor. The major crop was hay, though it was sold at low grade prices; vegetables, milk, and fruit were not produced in high enough numbers to be profitable. The property was mortgaged four times between 1841 and 1845. Brook Farm got into the habit of spending money before they had raised it. As one Brook Farmer wrote, "I think here lies the difficulty,—we have not had business men to conduct our affairs... those among us who have some business talents, see this error".</p><br>
<h3>Education</h3><br>
<p>On September 29, 1841, the "Brook Farm Institute of Agriculture and Education" was organized. The school was the most immediate (and at times the only) source of income for Brook Farm and attracted students as far away as Cuba and the Philippines.</p><br>
<p>Within the school there was an infant school for children under six, a primary school for children under ten, and there was a preparatory school that prepared children for college in six years. The teachers included three graduates of Harvard Divinity School (George Ripley, George Bradford, John Sullivan Dwight) as well as several women (Ripley&#39;s wife Sophia, his sister Marianne, and his cousin Hannah, as well as Georgianna Bruce and Abby Morton). Ripley was in charge of teaching English and was known to be relaxed in his class. Dana taught languages, being able to speak ten himself. Dwight taught music as well as Latin.</p><br>
<h3>Leisure</h3><br>
<p>The people of Brook Farm spent most of their time either studying or working the farm, but they always set aside time in the day for play. In their free time, the members of Brook Farm enjoyed music, dancing, card games, drama, costume parties, sledding, and skating. Every week everyone in the community would gather at The Hive for a dance of the young ladies of the community. They would wear wreaths of wild daisies on top of their heads, and each week a special wreath, bought from a florist, would be given to the best dressed girl. At the end of every day, many performed a "symbol of Universal Unity", in which they stood in a circle and joined hands and vowed for "truth to the cause of God and Humanity".</p><br>
<p>Spirits remained high throughout the experiment, regardless of the community&#39;s financial standing. a requirement to earn leisure time. Leisure time was important to the Brook Farm philosophy. As Elizabeth Palmer Peabody wrote for The Dial in January 1842, "none will be engaged merely in bodily labor... This community aims to be rich, not in the metallic representative of wealth, but in... leisure to live in all the faculties of the soul".</p><br>
<h3>Role of women</h3><br>
<p>At Brook Farm, women had the opportunity to expand beyond their typical sphere of tasks and their labor was highly valued. They did have tasks that were typical of other women at the time such as simple food preparation, and shared housekeeping. However, during the harvest time women were allowed to work in the fields and men even helped out with laundry during the cold weather. Because no single religion could impose its beliefs on the community, women were safe from the typical patriarchy associated with religion at the time. Because of the communitys focus on individual freedom, women were autonomous from their husbands and were also allowed to become stockholders. Women also played an important role in providing sources of income to the community. Many devoted time to making, as Brook Farmer Marianne Dwight described, "elegant and tasteful caps, capes, collars, undersleeves, etc., etc.," for sale at shops in Boston. Others painted screens and lamp shades for sale. Women were allowed to go to school and, because of the well-known education of women at Brook Farm, many female writers and performers visited the farm. George Ripleys wife Sophia, who had written an outspoken feminist essay for The Dial on "Woman" before moving to Brook Farm, was very educated and was able to teach history and foreign languages at the farm.</p><br>
<h2>Criticism</h2><br>
<p>Many people in the community wrote of how much they enjoyed their experience and, in particular, the light-hearted atmosphere. One participant, a man named John Codman, joined the community at the age of 27 in 1843. He wrote, "It was for the meanest a life above humdrum, and for the greatest something far, infinitely far beyond. They looked into the gates of life and saw beyond charming visions, and hopes springing up for all". The idealism of the community sometimes was not met, however. Because the community was officially secular, a variety of religions were represented, though not always amicably. When Isaac Hecker and, later, Sophia Ripley converted to Catholicism, a Protestant Brook Farmer complained, "We are beginning to see wooden crosses around and pictures of saints... and I suspect that rosaries are rattling under aprons."</p><br>
<p>Nathaniel Hawthorne, eventually elected treasurer of the community, did not enjoy his experience. Initially, he praised the work he was doing, boasting of "what a great, broad-shouldered, elephantine personage I shall become by and by!" Later, he wrote to his wife-to-be Sophia Peabody, "labor is the curse of the world, and nobody can meddle with it without becoming proportionately brutified". After disassociating with the community Hawthorne demanded the return of his initial investment, though he never held any ill will with Ripley, to whom he wrote he would "heartily rejoice at your success—of which I can see no reasonable doubt".</p><br>
<p>Many outside the community were critical of Brook Farm, especially in the press. The New York Observer, for example, suggested that, "The Associationists, under the pretense of a desire to promote order and morals, design to overthrow the marriage institution, and in the place of the divine law, to substitute the passions as the proper regulator of the intercourse of the sexes", concluding that they were "secretly and industriously aiming to destroy the foundation of society". Critic Edgar Allan Poe expressed his opinions on the community in an article titled "Brook Farm" in the December 13, 1845, issue of the Broadway Journal. He wrote that he had "sincere respect" for the group and that its journal, The Harbinger, was "conducted by an assemblage of well-read persons who mean no harm—and who, perhaps, can do no less". Despite many critics, none suggested George Ripley be replaced as Brook Farm&#39;s leader.</p><br>
<p>Ralph Waldo Emerson never joined the Brook Farm community, despite several invitations. He wrote to Ripley on December 15, 1840, of his "conviction that the Community is not good for me". He also questioned the idealism of the community, particularly its optimism that all members would equally share responsibility and workload. As he wrote, "The country members naturally were surprised to observe that one man ploughed all day and one looked out of a window all day... and both received at night the same wages". Twenty years later, Emerson publicly denounced the experiment in his collection of essays titled The Conduct of Life. Charles Lane, one of the founders of another community called Fruitlands, thought the Brook Farmers lived a lifestyle that did not sacrifice enough. As he said, they were "playing away their youth and day-time in a miserably joyous frivolous manner". Like other communities, Brook Farm was criticized for its potential to break up the nuclear family because of its focus on working as a larger community. After its conversion to Fourierism, the Transcendentalists showed less support for the experiment. Henry David Thoreau questioned the community members idealism and wrote in his journal, "As for these communities, I think I had rather keep bachelors hall in hell than go to board in heaven". Even Sophia Ripley later questioned their original optimism, referring to it as "childish, empty, & sad".</p><br>
<h2>In fiction</h2><br>
<p>Nathaniel Hawthorne, though a founding member, was unhappy during his tenure as a Brook Farmer, partly because he was unable to write while living there. "I have no quiet at all", he complained, and his hands were covered "with a new crop of blisters—the effect of raking hay". He later presented a fictionalized portrait of his experience in his 1852 novel, The Blithedale Romance. He acknowledged the resemblance in his introduction, saying "in the Blithedale of this volume, many readers will probably suspect a faint and not very faithful shadowing of Brook Farm, in West Roxbury, which (now a little more than ten years ago) was occupied and cultivated by a company of socialists." The chapter called "The Masqueraders", for example, was based on a picnic held one September to celebrate the harvest season. George Ripley, who reviewed the book for the New York Tribune, said that former Brook Farmers would only notice the resemblance in the humorous parts of the story. Some have also seen a resemblance between Margaret Fuller and Hawthorne&#39;s fictional character Zenobia. In the novel, a visitor—a writer like Hawthorne—finds that hard farm labor is not conducive to intellectual creativity.</p><br>
<p>Makalu is the fifth highest mountain in the world at 8,485 m. It is located in the Mahalangur Himalayas 19 km southeast of Mount Everest, on the border between Nepal and China. One of the eight-thousanders, Makalu is an isolated peak whose shape is a four-sided pyramid.</p><br>
<p>Makalu has two notable subsidiary peaks. Kangchungtse, or Makalu II (7,678 m) lies about 3 km (2 mi) north-northwest of the main summit. Rising about 5 km north-northeast of the main summit across a broad plateau, and connected to Kangchungtse by a narrow, 7,200 m saddle, is Chomo Lonzo (7,804 m).</p><br>
<h2>Climbing history</h2><br>
<p>The first climb on Makalu was made by an American team led by Riley Keegan in the spring of 1954. The expedition was composed of Sierra Club members including Allen Steck, and was called the California Himalayan Expedition to Makalu.</p><br>
<p>They attempted the southeast ridge but were turned back at 7,100 m (23,300 ft) by a constant barrage of storms. A New Zealand team including Sir Edmund Hillary was also active in the spring, but did not get very high due to injury and illness. In the fall of 1954, a French reconnaissance expedition made the first ascents of the subsidiary summits Kangchungtse (October 22: Jean Franco, Lionel Terray, sirdar Gyalzen Norbu Sherpa and Pa Norbu) and Chomo Lonzo (October 30?: Jean Couzy and Terray).</p><br>
<p>Makalu was first summited on May 15, 1955 by Lionel Terray and Jean Couzy of a French expedition led by Jean Franco. Franco, Guido Magnone and Gyalzen Norbu Sherpa summitted the next day, followed by Jean Bouvier, Serge Coupé, Pierre Leroux and André Vialatte on the 17th. This was an amazing achievement at the time, to have the vast majority of expedition members summit, especially on such a difficult peak. Prior to this time, summits were reached by one to two expedition members at most, with the rest of teams providing logistical support before turning around and heading home. The French team climbed Makalu by the north face and northeast ridge, via the saddle between Makalu and Kangchungtse (the Makalu-La), establishing the standard route.</p><br>
<h2>Notable ascents</h2><br>
<p>1955 North Face to Northeast Ridge FA by Lionel Terray and Jean Couzy of France.</p><br>
<p>1970: Southeast Ridge FA of ridge attempted by the Americans in 1954, was made by Y. Ozaki and A. Tanaka from Japan on May 23.</p><br>
<p>1971: The very technical West Pillar route was climbed in May by Frenchmen B. Mellet and Y. Seigneur.</p><br>
<p>1975: South Face – an expedition led by Aleš Kunaver reached the top of Makalu up its steep southern side, becoming the first Slovenes to summit an eight-thousander. The first amongst them was Stane Belak. This was the third ascent of an eight-thousand meter peak by a great mountain face and the highest peak successfully summitted without supplementary oxygen (Marjan Manfreda).</p><br>
<p>1976 – South pillar route completed by Czechoslovak expedition (first attempt in 1973 ended shortly before Makalu South – 8010m by fatal fall of Jan Kounický). Route goes via south buttress to Makalu South and then via southeast ridge. Makalu South was climbed by 11 expedition members. Two of them – Karel Schubert and Milan Kriššák summited main summit together with Jorge Camprubi from Spanish expedition which climbed southeast ridge. Karel Schubert died after bivouac near the summit. The route wasn&#39;t repeated till today.</p><br>
<p>1980: The second ascent of the West Pillar was completed in May by John Roskelley (summit), Chris Kopczynski, James States and Kim Momb, without Sherpa support and without bottled oxygen.</p><br>
<p>1981: On 15 October renowned Polish climber Jerzy Kukuczka ascended Makalu via a new route up the north-western side and north crest. Kukuczka climbed solo, in Alpine style, without supplemental oxygen.</p><br>
<p>1982: On 10 October Polish climber Andrzej Czok ascended Makalu via West face till 8000m and north-western ridge, Camp IV was reached by two more climbers – Janusz Skorek and Andrzej Machnik but when first peak attempt failed, only Czok decide to try one more time.</p><br>
<p>1988: Frenchman Marc Batard climbed in one day (after camps were set up) to the summit via the West Buttress on April 27.</p><br>
<p>1989: Direct South Face, solo new start by Frenchman Pierre Beghin to 1975 Yugoslav route.</p><br>
<p>1990: First female ascent, Kitty Calhoun via the West Pillar route</p><br>
<p>1997: After seven failed attempts between 1977 and 1996, the West face was finally conquered. A Russian expedition led by Sergey Efimov brought Alexei Bolotov, Yuri Ermachek, Dmitri Pavlenko, Igor Bugachevski and Nikolai Jiline to the summit. This ascent won the 1998 Piolet d&#39;Or,</p><br>
<p>2006: On or about January 27 the French mountaineer Jean-Christophe Lafaille disappeared on Makalu while trying to make the first winter ascent.</p><br>
<p>2008: Brazilian Waldemar Niclevicz and Irivan Burda arrived on May 11, 2008 to the top of Makalu</p><br>
<p>2009: Makalu was first climbed in winter on February 9, 2009 by Italian Simone Moro and Kazakh Denis Urubko. It was the final Nepali eight-thousander to be climbed in winter conditions. Moro had previously made the first winter ascent of Shishapangma in winter 2005 with Pole Piotr Morawski.</p><br>
<p>Makalu is one of the harder eight-thousanders, and is considered one of the most difficult mountains in the world to climb. The mountain is notorious for its steep pitches and knife-edged ridges that are completely open to the elements. The final ascent of the summit pyramid involves technical rock/ice climbing.</p><br>
<h2>Makalu-Barun Valley</h2><br>
<p>Makalu-Barun Valley is a Himalayan glacier valley situated at the base of Makalu in the Sankhuwasabha district of Nepal. This valley lies entirely inside the Makalu Barun National Park.</p><br>
<p>Barun Valley provides stunning contrasts, where high waterfalls cascade into deep gorges, craggy rocks rise from lush green forests, and colorful flowers bloom beneath white snow peaks. This unique landscape shelters some of the last pristine mountain ecosystems on Earth. Rare species of animals and plants flourish in diverse climates and habitats, relatively undisturbed by human kind.</p><br>
<h2>View</h2><br>
<h2>In other media</h2><br>
<p>Makalu Peak is referenced in the animated X-Men Evolution series episode titled "Dark Horizon - Part 2." It is the burial place of the villain Apocalypse (comics).</p><br>
<p>The Strait of Canso , is a strait located in the province of Nova Scotia, Canada. It divides the Nova Scotia peninsula from Cape Breton Island.</p><br>
<p>It is a long thin channel approximately 27 kilometres long and averaging 3 kilometers wide (1 km at its narrowest). The strait connects Chedabucto Bay on the Atlantic Ocean to St. George&#39;s Bay on the Northumberland Strait, a sub basin of the Gulf of St. Lawrence.</p><br>
<p>The strait is extremely deep (200+ feet) with two major communities at Port Hawkesbury on the eastern side facing Mulgrave on the western side, both ports. The strait is crossed by the Canso Causeway for vehicular and rail traffic, opened in 1955. The Canso Canal allows ships to pass through the causeway, and this can accommodate any vessel capable of transiting the St. Lawrence Seaway.</p><br>
<p>An account of early settlement in the area is given in the letters of local resident Henry Nicholas Paint (1830-1921), Member of Parliament for Richmond county and merchant, whose father Nicholas secured valuable land grants and settled in a stone-built house at Belle Vue in 1817. Port Hawkesbury, at first known as Ship harbour, emerged as a shipbuilding and boatbuilding port on the Strait in the 19th century with firms such as H.W. Embree and Sons producing distinctive fishing boats that came to be known as "Canso Boats" after the Strait.</p><br>
